[page 1]

1 Introduction

The geographical information available to the teacher is almost unlimited and, in many respects, soon dated. The need for pupils to acquire a relevant selection of factual information about places is clear, but the case for including geography (or its content, ideas and way of working) in the curriculum rests on its ability to help pupils identify and explain recurrent physical and human spatial patterns, the processes which work to create these patterns and the complex factors which link places together. Such studies can lead to a concern with social issues and problems such as those of the inner areas of large cities, or the siting of activities which may have environmental or social implications, to a better understanding of industrial and commercial requirements and to an interest in the ways in which decisions affecting the community are made. For example, an understanding of the development of motorways in Britain involves knowledge of the distribution of the major concentrations of population and industry and of the associated movements of people and goods, knowledge of the characteristics of networks, an awareness of the planning and decision-making processes at local and national levels, and some appreciation of the technological, economic and political factors involved. Depth of knowledge and understanding of these aspects is likely to be cumulative over a considerable period rather than to result from a short course of study; inevitably, too, the eventual level of understanding and knowledge gained by each pupil will vary considerably.

Factual information is certainly required, but understanding presupposes the development of appropriate concepts and generalisations. For instance, in the example quoted above, a concept of fundamental importance is that of 'relative-location'; the construction of a motorway effectively alters the relative location of the places which it serves. An illustration of this is the way in which the building of the M4 between London and Cardiff reduced the distance and/or travelling time by road not merely between the terminal points but also between many towns with access to the motorway. The combination of change of distance/travelling time and of degree of accessibility has altered the relative locations of the towns, with consequent effects upon the patterns of movement of people and goods between them.

There is growing evidence that many teachers and others are aware that the identification of such concepts and generalisations provides the basis for understanding, and that they are considering the implications of this approach for the design of geography courses. Some teachers, working alone or in groups, are attempting to identify the ideas that will be most useful for their pupils, to decide the level of understanding that is appropriate and to plan courses that allow for progression in keeping with their pupils' capabilities, experience and developing intellectual abilities.

[page 2]

In Chapter 3 of this publication an attempt is made to state some generalisations which it is thought will assist teachers in the design of their courses. The generalisations are divided into a number of sections which reflect the conventional subdivisions of geography into the systematic studies most frequently used in schools; this categorisation has been adopted purely for convenience and ease of reference. It is not suggested that the categories used are exhaustive; similar lists of ideas could be prepared for other areas of the subject, political geography or historical geography, for example; nor are the lists themselves intended to be comprehensive. They are presented as examples of ideas in some areas of the subject which can be explored with pupils up to the age of 16 years. The ideas do not represent any attempt at an authoritative statement of what should be taught in schools, and therefore, by omission, what should not be taught. Moreover, it should not be assumed that the basically 'systematic' grouping of the generalisations implies a recommendation of a 'systematic' approach to syllabus construction; indeed it is to be hoped that an appropriate selection of generalisations will also contribute much to thematic and area studies in geography.

Methods of teaching geography in schools vary widely and it is expected that the ways in which these suggestions are used will vary equally widely. Those teachers working within a framework of systematic categories (studies of industry, transport, settlement, etc), a method gaining in popularity, will probably wish to select ideas around which their courses can be organised and will study areas chosen from different parts of the world to illustrate the generalisations. Large numbers of pupils, however, continue to be taught geography within some kind of regional or area context while others have their geographical education as part of some form of interdisciplinary or multi-disciplinary studies. In the former case the teacher may select a particular area for study because it provides a suitable illustration of important general ideas. If other criteria determine the choice of area to be studied, the process will be reversed and the relevant ideas will be selected from those which are seen to be appropriate to the subject matter. If the teacher has chosen to investigate a theme in an interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary way it is still possible to select from the lists a number of generalisations appropriate to the geographical aspects of the study and ensure that these, with others identified as necessary by the teacher, are incorporated in the pupils' learning. In such ways it is possible to ensure that the fundamental ideas on which geography is based are common to all modes of working. Some approaches more than others may help to maintain continuity of ideas, and progression in them, both matters of prime importance to teachers in their planning and to pupils in their learning.

The purpose of the generalisations is to help explain the processes and patterns of the real world, but each can deal only with limited aspects of a complex and varied whole. Pupils at different stages of a school course will study different material which will nevertheless often exemplify many of the same generalisations. The range and complexity of the material studied by pupils within a year group, however they may be organised, can be adjusted to allow a depth of study appropriate to the pupils' varying abilities. With the more

[page 3]

advanced pupil, the depth of study and interpretation will inevitably be more complex and more demanding on the pupil's ability to understand and develop the ideas further.

Chapter 2 examines in more detail the structure underlying the term, 'Ideas in Geography'; Chapter 3 includes a number of generalisations grouped according to systematic categories; Chapter 4 examines some of the ways in which the use of generalisations can influence work in the classroom and concludes with examples of the contrasting ways in which a number of schools and a teachers' group have used generalisations as a basis for planning their syllabuses. The use of maps is so fundamental to geography teaching that any discussion of work in the classroom would be incomplete without reference to this basic need, and the appendix offers some suggestions of the map skills which pupils should acquire to enable them to use maps effectively during the course of their wider geographical studies.

[page 5]

2 Ideas in geography

In Chapter 1 it was argued that a pupil's understanding can be firmly based only if the concepts and generalisations appropriate to a particular study have been developed. In this section more detailed attention is given to the nature of concepts, generalisations and models and systems, all of which can be covered by the umbrella term 'idea'.

Concepts

Geographical understanding does not begin with geography lessons, any more than concept learning must await attendance at school. Most children in this country are exposed to a wealth of information about the world in which they live. Relevant experience is obtained at home, in the local area, on journeys further afield and from indirect sources, such as books and television. However, the mere accumulation of a store of discrete bits of information will not lead very far. The process of learning depends upon the individual being able to reflect on previous experiences and generalise from them. Later in a new, but similar, situation the generalisation can be used to identify what is significant and interpret what is perceived. Thus children who frequently accompany their parents shopping are soon able to develop some notion of what a shop is while at the same time learning to distinguish between different types of shops. In a similar way, with appropriate experience, they will learn to identify other features of the landscape - factories, schools, railways, parks, woods, rivers, beaches. Their knowledge about each may be slight, but they become sufficiently aware of characteristics to recognise an example as belonging to a particular category, and, having recognised the type, they may anticipate other attributes not immediately evident. The sight of a railway brings an expectation of trains, the mention of a park reminds them of swings. In time they develop a clearer and fuller concept of what these features are and what distinguishes them from other features that are not of the same category. Without such conceptual development there would be no significant application of learning to other situations.

In their early years children develop some knowledge, however rudimentary, about a vast range of objects and activities that come within their direct personal experience, and they learn to attach appropriate labels to them. It is much more difficult for them to develop a concept of some object or process of which they have no direct experience or which they cannot easily observe in its entirety. Thus the idea of a glacier, a river basin, a tropical plantation, or the process of migration will be difficult for younger pupils to grasp. Many of the concepts used regularly by geographers relate to extremely complex features and understanding their essential nature involves a high level of abstraction. This is easily forgotten when the label that identifies the concept is part of our everyday language, as in the case of 'climate' and 'city'. Pupils can use terms, sometimes

[page 6]

even in correct contexts, without having much understanding of the concept to which the term refers. But the introduction of an appropriate label at a suitable time helps the pupil to focus on the particular idea and talk about it. Adults and children rely heavily on language to clarify thoughts, exchange ideas and so develop shared understanding.

In a discipline the fundamental concepts which structure its thinking, and have wide application, are inevitably abstract ideas. In geography they include spatial concepts, such as 'distribution pattern', 'distance', 'accessibility', and also ecological ideas, such as 'environment' and 'resource', reflecting the geographer's interest in location and the complex relationships between man, his culture and his biophysical environment. Accessibility may be taken as an example of an important spatial concept, equally applicable to the study of a new communication network, the location of factories, the influence of ease of access to markets on farmers' choice of products, the suitability of alternative locations for settlement and the relative attraction within a town of different residential areas. The idea may be introduced in a simple way and within a familiar context (eg the ease of getting to a football ground from the various parts of a town), but it can be developed into a more sophisticated idea to be applied to more complex situations. Access may be required to a variety of facilities (eg the factory requires access to materials, labour and markets) and the ease of access may be measured in a variety of ways (eg distance, time, cost). A concept such as accessibility can therefore be approached at different levels of understanding. To say that an individual has studied 'glaciers' or 'cities' or 'accessibility' is to give no indication of the many possible aspects that have been tackled or of what depth of knowledge has been acquired. The most important concepts should be returned to, re-examined and extended many times during a course of study.

Generalisations

In seeking to explain spatial patterns, geographers are concerned to identify recurrent relationships. These can be expressed as statements in the form of a rule or principle that specifies a relationship between concepts. Thus the statement 'the central business district occupies that part of a city which is most generally accessible to the people living within the city and within the city's sphere of influence' describes the general location of central business districts in terms of 'accessibility', 'city' and 'sphere of influence'. It is a fairly precise statement in that it specifies a particular relationship, but it demands considerable knowledge because to make sense of the generalisation one has to understand the meaning of the constituent concepts, several of which are abstract ideas. However, generalisations, like concepts, can be approached at different levels of understanding. The relationship between transport and locational specialisation may be expressed in a general statement that 'adequate transport systems permit specialisation of activities in suitable localities'. To have some notion of the idea even at a simple level requires an appreciation of the advantages of specialisation and the nature of the links which tie the localities where activities are concentrated to the wider areas which they serve or from which they are supplied. In a rural area, this idea could be introduced through pupils investi-

[page 7]

gating the catchment area of their own school and the journeys to and from school. The relationship between the size of the school, the size and the nature of the catchment area and the transport system involved could be understood in terms of a specific case about which they had direct experience. Later, the idea might be extended to other activities, such as farming and manufacturing industry, and the factors involved analysed. Eventually some pupils would be able to discuss and evaluate the generalisation as an abstract idea and to apply it to a wide range of situations.

Because of the complex nature of the subject matter of geography and the central role of man as a decision-maker exploiting and modifying his own environment (referred to in more detail on page 9), it is hardly surprising that many geographical generalisations are 'weak statements' compared with the laws of physical science. The relationship that is identified is often complicated by other factors and usually involves a general tendency or high probability rather than a simple, constant principle. This does not mean that the relationship is unimportant. For a pupil to understand such a relationship, however, he must be given the opportunity to see how it functions in different situations, and the teacher has a vital role to play in selecting relevant information, posing appropriate questions and helping pupils develop and refine their ideas. This assumes, of course, that the teacher already knows which ideas will be most valuable for his pupils and has sufficient awareness of the structure of geography to be able to introduce and exploit a significant idea when the opportunity arises. A good deal of recently published material in geography has introduced general ideas in a helpful and explicit way.

Models and systems

Ideas may be brought together in more elaborate conceptual structures, such as models. The term 'model' is used in a variety of ways, but here it is taken to mean a simplified representation of reality, an attempt to illustrate a structure which links relationships and inter-relationships in a particular context. As such, models do not reveal all the details of a situation but focus on those aspects which are most significant. They involve a degree of abstraction, since only by setting aside some detail are we able to identify significant patterns and so make some sense of the complexities of the real world. Models have been part of geographical work for a long time. A particular example, made familiar through televised weather forecasts, is the Bjerknes weather model of frontal depressions which illustrates the way in which sense may be brought to a confusing array of observations of temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind direction and speeds, and which through its general applicability may lead to prediction. Simple models relating, for example, industrial location to single factors, may be developed by teachers to meet their pupils' needs. Later, the interaction of several factors can be introduced through the study of more complex models, such as the 'Weber' model of industrial development. Recently published geography books show a variety of models simplified for classroom use.

The workings of the real world may be interpreted in terms of 'systems', each of which is seen as a coherent unit with components which are functionally related. Emphasis is placed upon the links

[page 8]

between the parts; on flows of energy, materials and information within the system, and on ways in which the system responds to various processes. In geography the study of the locational or spatial attributes of systems may vary in scale from the functioning of an individual farm or residential neighbourhood to that of a complex economic or social system at a national or even international level. Geographical systems are not isolated from outside influences. They are therefore termed 'open systems' and the inputs and outputs can be identified and related to the functioning of the system. The manner in which a farm functions illustrates well the idea of an open system. Inputs (which may be daily, seasonal, or annual) include the amount and cost of labour and the investment in capital goods, such as machinery, fertiliser, cattle feed and seed. Outputs include crops or livestock for sale. The processes in this case include the variety of activities which take place on a farm, the relationships between the various components of the farm system and the influence of external factors. Such a system is illustrated in the figure below. An open system may acquire a form which, despite minor fluctuations, remains stable over a period of time. For example, a farm, although subject to seasonal changes and other rhythms, such as a crop rotation, may retain the same overall land-use pattern for many years. Such a system is said to be in a steady state. On the other hand a shift in market prices or the introduction of a government subsidy scheme may encourage a farmer to change from dairying to mixed farming. In that case a change in input would have resulted in a substantial change in the structure and operation of the system.

[page 9]

Geographical systems are themselves interconnected as parts of larger economic, social and political systems, and at a lower level contain sub-systems of one form or another. For example, the farm is just one of many which form part of the country's agricultural system. A farm is variously linked through its inputs and outputs to other farms and agricultural processing plants, and responds to government activity and market demands of various kinds. The agricultural system, of which the individual farm is a part, is itself an integral part of the country's economic system. Changes in the economic system as a whole may, in the long term, induce changes in the agricultural system at the level of the individual farm.

The urban system, too, contains a large number of interacting units, such as factories, homes, schools, railways, roads and a wide variety of services. Each of these can be looked upon as a system in its own right when considered individually. However, as one considers systems of progressively smaller sizes there comes a point when they are no longer seen as part of the geographer's province, although they may have wider educational applications. The home is an important sub-system in the operation of a town as it is a node of activity for journeys to work, to school, to shops and other places within the much larger urban system. A detailed study of a single home, however (even with a spatial emphasis), may not be truly geographical because it is too small in scale.

Decision-making and perception

The patterns of locational and man-environment relationships, which constitute much of the subject matter of geography, are the result of countless numbers of decisions that have been made in the past and of others which continue to be reached today. Decisions concerning, for example, the location of iron-works in 1820 or housing estates in 1977 are made against a background of the information available and the values and attitudes of individuals and society prevailing at the time. Information available for decision-making is often incomplete and may also be inaccurate in some respects; in addition, the individual or group responsible for making a decision may not be aware of the full range of other possibilities. Chance factors, particularly physical hazards, such as flood, landslide, drought and runs of inclement weather, may not only affect crop yields and damage property but also alter people's perception of what is likely to happen in the future. This may therefore have important repercussions in future location decisions. Those assessing the opportunities may also be subject to a variety of external pressures - social and/or political - which influence their response in particular circumstances. Even if all the relevant information were available, different groups of decision-makers might perceive the same facts and range of alternatives in contrasting ways and consequently act diversely. Thus an individual's view of the environment can influence the way in which conclusions are reached.

It is against such a background that the use of games and simulations has been developed as a teaching technique. These are exercises which are designed to present chosen situations to pupils and to require them, perhaps through some form of role-play, to take decisions on the basis of information provided. Chance factors, such as those referred to above, may also be fed into a game, perhaps

[page 10]

leading pupils to develop strategies which are parallel to those in the real world. Various conclusions may be reached: some may be argued to be better than others; often it is possible to show that there is no right or wrong answer, and this learning experience may help pupils to gain a deeper understanding of the evolution of patterns of locations and distributions and to establish generalisations. When a simulation is concerned with events over a long period of historical time (eg the development of the iron and steel industry) pupils come to realise how locational decisions made at an earlier time have a profound influence on present-day distributions and on current developments. The objectives of such learning techniques need to be clearly understood by teachers and pupils and the simulations carefully integrated with the overall programme of work. This done, they can increase motivation, add to understanding and influence the development of attitudes and values.

Skills

The development of geographical understanding cannot be separated from the acquisition of intellectual skills. When pupils are required to select appropriate information, to compare, to classify, to search for patterns, to apply concepts and generalisations, they are required to engage in mental activity. Geographical learning is more than a matter of receiving information. It is an active process involving the gradual development of ideas which themselves become the basis for further thought. The term 'skill' is applied to achievements that range from simple physical control and manipulation, such as that required to draw maps or use equipment, to complex mental processes. In each case, however, use of the term implies an ability acquired through learning that relates to a specific activity or type of activity and an acceptable level of achievement in that activity. The later section on mapwork (see page 57) illustrates both the variety of skills called for in a vital aspect of geography and the close links that can exist between skills and knowledge. To interpret a relief map pupils must know something about landforms and drainage patterns as well as be able to identify features shown by contours and other conventional means of representation. The notion of skills in geography should not, however, be restricted to mapwork. Intellectual skills, such as the ability to interpret and analyse a given situation and apply the conclusion in a new setting, contribute fundamentally to the development of generally applicable study skills such as literacy, numeracy and the ability to use a variety of source material, books and maps. A detailed discussion of the complex relationship between these categories is beyond the scope of this booklet, but when considering the objectives and learning sequences of a geography course it is helpful to include some statement of study skills, at least in terms of the types of experience to be provided.

Attitudes

The contexts devised to further the pupils' understanding of geographical generalisations also offer opportunities in which pupils can be helped to understand the nature of values and attitudes and their importance in the making of decisions. This is because social issues and matters of environmental concern, which constitute much of the subject matter of geography, are clearly value-laden. The

[page 11]

geography curriculum, like that of other subjects, can encourage worthwhile attitudes towards learning, such as a respect for evidence, an awareness of biased reporting and intolerance, a suspicion of simplistic explanations and a willingness to engage in rational discussion. Furthermore, the curriculum can also attempt to ensure that pupils develop an interest in other people and other places; have an appreciation and sympathy for the lifestyles and culture of others, including minority groups in our own society; develop a concern for the quality of the environment, both urban and rural; are willing to consider other points of view and reach compromise conclusions relating to proposed changes in the environment; are concerned with efforts to conserve scarce and valuable resources of all kinds (animals, plants, minerals, landscapes, etc). These aims are only intended as examples. It is clear that pupils can be helped to reflect on their own attitudes and to develop values through the many opportunities given in the subject to acquire relevant knowledge about important issues, to diagnose problems, to discuss the values and attitudes relevant to the situation and to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of alternative responses. This section is only intended as a brief introduction to this most important area of concern which, no doubt, teachers and others preparing curricular statements will wish to develop further.

Progression

It has been shown that while some geographical ideas vary in the degree of difficulty they present to pupils, many ideas can be approached at different levels of understanding. Although what can be achieved at a particular stage will depend largely upon pupils' experience and their intellectual capabilities, important ideas need to be returned to time and time again, with a gradual extension and deepening of understanding. The notion of a 'spiral curriculum', in which key ideas and skills are progressively developed in a carefully structured manner, has obvious attractions. The study of settlement patterns, for example, can be planned as a recurrent theme, within which concepts and principles of wide application can be gradually developed. Although an analysis and evaluation of central place theory would not be appropriate until a late stage, ideas about the size, spacing and function of towns and villages can be introduced much earlier. The need is to develop the interests and imagination of young pupils while at the same time laying the foundations for more advanced studies. Since some pupils may not study geography beyond the age of 14 teachers need to plan for all pupils to meet certain geographical concepts before they reach this age. However, an understanding of some concepts requires a maturity of thought which it would be unreasonable to expect of relatively young pupils, and yet the ideas are of such importance to their development as individuals and members of society that it is to be hoped that, even if pupils have ceased to study geography at 14, the ideas will be introduced during a more widely based course.

When analysed many individual generalisations and concepts show a dependence upon prior understanding of other ideas. For example, pupils cannot properly understand a generalisation without understanding the concepts involved, and they cannot understand the concepts without having the experience that enables them

[page 12]

to identify examples and to differentiate these and other features which are not exemplars. Hence the importance of carefully planning the range and sequence of work to ensure progression in understanding. When planning the work the following need to be considered carefully.

Distance from experience. The more remote the idea from pupils' experience, the greater the need for well presented examples to illustrate clearly the attributes of that idea. For example, pupils sometimes misconceive the scale of landforms which have been described with the aid of diagrams alone. It helps if pupils can be shown landforms in association with other features of the landscape with which they are familiar.

Degree of complexity. The more complex the information and the relationship between ideas, the more difficult is the learning task. It is easier, therefore, for a pupil to understand a generalisation or model linking a few concepts than one involving a large number. Some valuable ideas, such as 'culture', 'environment' and 'region', are difficult to define and can be explored only with a growing awareness of their constituent elements. This is relevant when considering what sort of situation to select for analysis, what information to include in a case study and what teaching methods to use.

Degree of abstraction. Abstract ideas enable pupils to interpret and structure their thinking about complex situations, but these ideas require them to focus in a highly selective way on relevant aspects of experience and to reason without the support of direct concrete evidence. A high level of abstraction is demanded when there is an attempt to apply a concept to a wide range of contrasting examples. It is fairly easy, for example, to relate the concept of 'resource' to mineral deposits or forests, both natural, tangible features from which valuable materials can be extracted. It is more difficult to extend the idea of resource to skilled labour, to the climate of a region and to the cultural amenities of a town. Models such as Von Thunen's isolated state theory and Christaller's central place theory simplify and interpret reality but at the cost of a high level of abstraction. The difficulty for many pupils is not that of memorising the features of a model but of relating the model to the complexities of the real world.

Degree of precision. The need for precision is often evident in the teacher's attempts to improve pupils' clarity of thought, range and use of language and techniques of measurement, but increase in precision is not easily achieved. Definitions are an attempt at precision but, if presented prematurely, are not helpful. It is often better for a pupil to explore an idea in his own words before attempting to learn a formal definition. The mathematics sometimes used to achieve greater rigour can present learning difficulties, particularly when the mathematical operations are themselves complex or involve abstract ideas. It

[page 13]

is again a matter of deciding when greater precision is required and what level of precision is useful and feasible (eg the teacher will need to decide the stage at which the application of Spearman Rank Correlation techniques is necessary to give more precision to the work).

The involvement of attitudes and values. Many situations studied in geography require an understanding of other people's attitudes and values, and sometimes an analysis of conflicting values. This is demanding on pupils in that it may call for an openness to views that are very different from their own, an ability to reflect on their own attitudes and values and an ability to approach an issue with some degree of objectivity. The influence of attitudes expressed within their own family, their peer group and the community of which they are a part, is often strong and may be a barrier to adopting a sympathetic or objective view. The older and more emotionally mature pupils become, the more likely it is that they will be able to consider issues objectively.

[page 15]

3 Generalisations

It must be emphasised that the generalisations which follow should not be taught as statements to be recorded and memorised, nor should they be regarded as the outline of a linear course. Some of the ways in which they have been used by teachers are illustrated in Chapter 4.

Farming

Farming is the production of food and materials by the growing of crops and management of animals. Farming is important: (a) as the source of most of our food and many important materials; (b) as the dominant form of land-use over large parts of the earth's surface; (c) as the direct means of livelihood for well over half of the world's people; (d) as a major contributor to world trade.

Key ideas: the farm as a system; types of farming; factors of production-physical, technological, economic, social and political; accessibility to markets; the intensity of farming; the farmer as a decision-maker; specialisation; farming regions.

[page 16]

[page 17]

[page 18]

Landforms

Landforms result from a complex interaction between forces and various kinds of resistance; the landforms themselves are constantly changing in ways which mayor may not be observable over the human life-span. The processes vary dramatically over time and area according to relief, climate and the nature of the vegetation cover. Research may involve the collection of accurate data relating to form and process and its interpretation over concentrated fields of study. Below the sixth-form the aims will be to help pupils in the classification of characteristic landscapes according to contrasts in relief, to introduce them to the various processes at work and to examine the effects of, and upon, man's activity in the systems studied.

Key ideas: landscape; rock-type; relief; slope; form; process; weathering; mass wasting; erosion; deposition; resistance; evolution; drainage basin; watershed; transportation; landscape value; hydrological cycle.

[page 19]

Manufacturing industries

Manufacturing industries are those in which raw materials, processed materials or part manufactures are further processed and/or assembled to produce a semi-finished or finished product. Such manufacturing sometimes takes place in homes or craft workshops but is usually found in factories of varying size. Specialisation in particular skills by particular groups is typical of manufacturing workers, enabling higher efficiencies in goods production. The great variety of manufactured products creates a wide range of spatial patterns of distribution and location of these industries.

Key ideas: the nature and relative importance of factors of location, the importance of accessibility and of the market for the goods; the constraints of inertia on the location of new plants and the tradi-

[page 20]

tional importance of agglomeration of elements within a branch of manufacturing industry; increasing freedom of location or footlooseness of modern manufacturing industry.

[page 21]

[page 22]

Natural resources

Societies inhabit and help to create complex and varied environments, which present opportunities for, and constraints on, different ways of life. A resource is any part or attribute of an environment which is considered to be valuable. The term 'natural resource' is limited to those features which have been neither made nor greatly altered by man. They include non-renewable stocks of valuable materials, eg metal ores, fossil fuels; 'flow resources', which are renewable over varying time-scales, eg soils, water, forests, wild life; valued features of the earth's surface, eg natural harbours, good ski slopes, attractive beaches; and less tangible components of the environment, eg climate, natural landscape. Some of these can, of course, be greatly modified by man and the adjective 'natural' may then no longer be appropriate.

Key ideas: environment; cultural values; resource; resource evaluation; renewable and non-renewable resources; accessibility; scale; technology, waste disposal; resource exploitation and resource management.

[page 23]

Population

Population geography is concerned with spatial variations in the distribution, composition, movement and growth of populations. All these phenomena are related to variations in the characteristics of places.

Key ideas: distribution pattern: density; inertia; concentration; mobility; migration; classification; over-population and under-population; demographic trend.

[page 24]

[page 25]

Recreation

Opportunities for leisure and recreation have been increasing as the working week and year have been shortened, while, for many, personal mobility has improved and levels of income have risen. No longer are leisure and recreation confined to the home or local area. National and international patterns of distributions of facilities have developed as increasing demand has been met by provision. Some demands may be seasonal: some areas offer varying seasonal attractions to different groups of people. Planning has become necessary in many instances to try to (a) reduce the effects of over-use of some areas, (b) separate the conflicting demands of different recreational activities and interests, and (c) harmonise the needs of those who make a living in an area with those who come for recreational purposes.

Key ideas: the development of changing distribution patterns which may show seasonal variations; different demands on landscapes; the effects on movements of increased mobility and accessibility reducing the friction of distance; conflicting demands on resources; assessment of the recreational potential and capacity of areas.

[page 26]

[page 27]

[page 28]

[page 29]

Settlement

Settlements are the permanent or more or less permanent locations of human residence usually associated with other activities such as work, recreation, religion etc. They vary in size both in terms of population and area occupied from the individual farmstead through village and town to city.

Key ideas: the nature and effect of site characteristics; the effect of accessibility on situation and the settlement's sphere of influence; the nature of the varied distribution patterns; the development of a settlement hierarchy; the characteristic of the range and number of functions; the movement patterns of people, goods, money etc. between settlements.

[page 30]

Soils and vegetation

Soil is a living and dynamic mixture of mineral particles, plant remains, micro-organisms, water, dissolved chemicals and air in varying proportions. It is developed very slowly from parent rock. It provides nutrients (many made available by the micro-organisms), moisture and root-hold for plants. The colour, texture, structure and acidity may vary with depth and form a distinctive profile. Similarly these attributes, together with fertility and depth, vary from place to place depending upon climatic conditions, the nature of the parent rock and of the litter. Soluble minerals in soil may be dissolved by rain and washed to lower levels beyond the reach of many plant roots. The economic value of a soil relates directly to its structure and fertility and, through its location, to the climatic controls on productivity.

Soil and climatic conditions affect the natural vegetation which develops in particular areas. This vegetation cover evolves slowly but progressively with different associations of plants occurring at various stages. Within these associations separate 'layers' of plants may be found. Man may interfere with this evolution by clearing vegetation with fire and by grazing animals. Many plants are sources of food and raw materials. Some have been modified to improve production; some have been moved to new habitats.

At any stage in the evolution of both soil structure and vegetation there is a balance among the constituents: that balance can be destroyed very rapidly by the action of man.

Key ideas: distributions; zones; horizons; profiles; structure; leaching; humus; fertility; erosion; succession; communities; layers or strata; climax, balance or equilibrium; resources.

[page 31]

[page 32]

[page 33]

Towns and cities

Towns are more or less continuously built-up areas and are variously defined by population size (commonly 2,000-plus) or the range and number of functions provided. The latter is, perhaps, more realistic as certain types of settlement (eg dormitory villages and small towns with a market function in upland areas of dispersed settlement) may lead to marked anomalies if a pure classification by size is used. They are all, however, complex functioning systems, closely related to other towns and settlements, and contain within themselves a very large number of interrelated sub-systems.

Key ideas: sphere of influence related to accessibility; the development of functional zones; the hierarchical arrangement of many services within the built-up area; complex movement patterns related to the functioning of the town; decision-making related to spatial perception; the general process of urbanisation.

[page 34]

[page 35]

Transport

Transport is a recurrent theme in human geography, being a major factor in the location of economic and social activities and in the development of land use and settlement patterns. Transport systems provide the means by which places are linked, thereby influencing their relative accessibility and subsequent patterns of movement. Our personal mobility is strongly affected by the transport systems available to us.

Key ideas: the reasons for spatial interaction; the characteristics of movement patterns (flows), route systems (networks) and the different means of transport (modes); the significance of distance; the factors that influence transport decisions; and the effects of transport systems on the economic and social environment.

[page 36]

[page 37]

[page 38]

Weather and climate

The study of weather, the temporary condition of the lower layers of the atmosphere, includes observation and measurement of a range of elements and an investigation of their characteristics and causes. The study of climate - what may reasonably be expected to occur from month to month and from year to year - is largely based on averages or means derived from previous recordings of daily weather conditions. The influences of weather and climate on man's activities are many and of considerable significance.

Key ideas: the earth's energy balance; the elements of weather, their measurement and recording-temperature, pressure, wind, sunshine, clouds, humidity, fog, precipitation etc; the factors affecting them, such as pressure and wind systems, ocean currents, relief; the importance of the hydrological cycle; local variations in weather; the prediction of weather conditions; seasonal climatic patterns (regimes); the classification of climatic types, eg tropical, temperate, polar, oceanic, continental; weather hazards and the influence of weather and climate on human activities.

[page 39]

[page 41]

4 Use of generalisations

Some implications for the classroom

It must be stressed again that the lists of generalisations should never be interpreted as a set of relationships to be conveyed as they stand to pupils of any age or ability. Indeed, a reasonable degree of understanding of any generalisation comes only from studying its applicability in a wide range of actual situations.

During the past two decades, school geography has seen an increased emphasis upon fieldwork and the use of case study material, with the aim of helping pupils to develop a clearer mental picture of the world and its people. More recently such work has been facilitated by the production of a large volume of material, by commercial and other sources, providing maps, photographs, diagrams, statistics, written accounts and various other details calculated to make places, people and phenomena more comprehensible to pupils.

However, the mere provision of a succession of sample studies along these lines is not sufficient. The material needs to be both significant and relevant; significant in terms of its capacity to illustrate an appropriate selection of patterns, processes and relationships, ie generalisations; relevant in terms of the pupil's likely needs for information, understanding and skills appropriate to his functioning as a competent and informed citizen. Important criteria for the identification of a valuable generalisation are its breadth of application and its potential for later elaboration in a more sophisticated or sensitive way at more complex levels. Once clarified, therefore, the generalisations can act as selectors for the teacher in pinpointing which of a vast number of potential studies are likely to be of greatest value. But neither the clarification and articulation of the general ideas to be explored, nor the provision of a wide range of source material and activity within and outside the classroom, will of themselves guarantee a worthwhile educational experience, although they are both desirable prerequisites. The crucial criterion is the quality of the interaction between the two, and here the role of the teacher is vital. The relative emphasis placed by the teacher upon illustrative content on the one hand and underlying ideas on the other, and the nature of the resulting interaction with pupils, will obviously vary according to the age, ability and background of the pupils concerned. But what needs to be built into the work at all levels is a sense of forward movement from description, recording and classification towards understanding, interpretation and application. Children are unlikely to make much progress along this path without active and regular intervention by the teacher in class, group or individual work.

How should the balance of this interaction be planned? At the age of 9 or 10, not many pupils are likely to be capable of hypothetical reasoning based on the generalisations themselves. The teacher's task, however, is to help the pupil towards an under-

[page 42]

standing of the rational connections inherent in the particular studies undertaken. At upper-junior or lower-middle school level, some pupils do not follow a systematic course of geographical study. Geographical ideas will usually be explored in the context of integrated studies to which other subjects, such as history and science, will have an important contribution to make. However, if the pupils' experience is to be one of quality, it is important to select subject matter for study which offers ample opportunities for rational analysis and deeper understanding.

A class may be studying a local suburb comprising a former village engulfed by the expansion of a city, with an associated shift of commercial activity. The pupils map the location of shops, carry out traffic surveys and pedestrian counts, and investigate and record the ages of buildings near the shopping area. Once the recording stage is achieved, interpretation begins, and it is not hard to compile questions which pupils can be asked:

Where is the number of people passing greatest?
What are the buildings there mainly used for?
Where is the traffic heaviest?
Where are the oldest buildings?
Where are the newest buildings?
Which shops does your family use? What goods are bought elsewhere, and where are they bought?

If you were buying a shop to set up as a butcher, and there were four sites for sale, A, B, C and D, which would you try to buy?
Why?
Which goods does your family travel furthest to purchase?
Why will they travel further to buy some goods than others?

Where would you say is the 'centre' of your suburb? Think of it from the point of view of (a) shopping, (b) transport, (c) entertainment, (d) employment. Why are they not all in the same place?

[page 43]

guage pattern and vocabulary is far more likely when the pupils' work is, in this way, developed well beyond the initial stages of describing and recording.

In the kind of topic approach found in many primary schools and sometimes in the lower years of middle schools, it is likely that only rarely will the content of study be selected with an exclusively geographical viewpoint in mind. Yet the initial clarification of geographical generalisations is a useful way of approaching a topic study; once this is achieved, the illustrative content can be adjusted to provide material which is significant also in terms of other disciplines. In the example quoted, historical evidence (documentary, visual, or oral) for changes over time in the functions of buildings might, in conjunction with the geographical studies described, contribute to a general picture of the settlement's evolution from village to suburb, and an understanding of the implications for the life-pattern of its residents.

The approach at this level is therefore basically inductive. It involves, for the pupils, first-hand experience of practical work with materials and other resources, and although the general ideas are not studied explicitly or for their own sake, they do emerge to the extent that they pervade the patterns and relationships of the particular situation being examined.

At upper-middle or lower-secondary level, much of the pupils' work may remain at an inductive level, but the generalisations will perhaps be more deliberately structured into a network of principles and supported by carefully chosen geographical experiences. It may also be possible in certain cases to pursue a variety of case studies to the point where one or two of the underlying group of generalisations are overtly identified.

Suppose in the early years at secondary school a group of pupils is working on a half-term unit on the topic of farming. They may have visited a local market garden, and have study material on a Scottish croft, a sample farm in lowland England, a rice-farming area in India, plus some version of a farm game involving decisions with respect to choice of farming activity. The generalisations appropriate to this level concern the operation of a range of natural and human factors influencing the type of agricultural activity found, the farm as a system, the notions that agriculture may be intensive or extensive, or subsistence or commercial in nature. (Refer to Farming, page 15.)

The farmer's inputs and outputs may be listed for the market-garden visited and recorded in diagrammatic form; the same diagram may then be applied to the Scottish croft. The pupils will recognise that both input and output are greater for the market garden; the terms 'intensive' and 'extensive' may be introduced; most pupils will be able to recognise to which type a farm belongs. But their knowledge of the generalisation is rudimentary; faced with examples of a Canadian wheat farm and rice cultivation in the lower Ganges valley, only abler pupils would have achieved enough operational competence to apply the idea accurately. Pupils of modest or lower ability might well, in the new situation, confuse degree of intensity with total output or farm income, and hence pronounce the prairie farm intensive; such pupils will clearly need further experience and

[page 44]

discussion with the teacher in order to establish the idea more clearly.

This, then, raises all the problems of catering for pupils of varying ability, particularly where pupils of this age group are arranged in classes containing a wide spread of ability. It is beyond the scope of this booklet to discuss this question in detail, but again, the identification of general ideas may prove helpful. A common response to this situation is to provide pupils with some form of worksheet through which they can work at their own pace. Such attempts to individualise the learning process can mean that each pupil at a given time has reached a different point in the programme; it follows that most teacher intervention is likely to be with individuals. In an ideas-based teaching syllabus, there are dangers in this situation which need careful watching. A principal aim of any scheme of work based on generalisations must be the enhancement of the pupil's understanding of the material being studied, and acceleration of his progress towards higher order intellectual skills such as analysis and application of the ideas learned and understood. In most cases, this process is facilitated when the teacher, by his sensitive and timely intervention, is able to act as a catalyst; indeed, it is essential for generalisations to be explored and discussed and very difficult for pupils to crystallise and shape ideas without a dialogue which helps them identify what is significant and establishes yardsticks of comparison between different examples. Interaction amongst the pupils and with the teacher is likely to be more fruitful at the small group level, while a measure of class teaching may also be useful for certain aspects of the work. Many of the pupil's written tasks such as recording conclusions and exercises in the application of acquired skills will, of course, be done individually. Any assistance he may require in order to overcome particular problems of expression or understanding will also normally call for individual attention. In short, class, group and individual teaching need to be carefully balanced and steps taken to match the medium with the purpose.

For example, in the case of the farming unit described, a sequence might begin with a short introduction followed by group work on the case study material. Groups of pupils could be working on different studies, with the teacher circulating and trying to draw out the relationships. These could then be reinforced and extended with a class lesson or two, drawing upon the acquired and emerging knowledge of the whole class to develop generalisations and principles. Subsequently the work is differentiated according to ability, abler pupils undertaking exercises designed to apply the principles to new or hypothetical material, less able pupils pursuing further case studies or being taught directly in order to establish a firm understanding of the generalisations. Some of this last phase might also be carried out by pupils working individually, balancing the class and group teaching of earlier episodes.

Clearly, with older pupils, especially those of above average ability pursuing courses leading to examinations at 16-plus, more deductive procedures will be justified. The pupils should already have met the major ideas being manipulated, and will have some background of knowledge and experience to which they can relate statements in abstract form. A fourth-year lesson sequence on the location and

[page 45]

development of the British iron and steel industry might begin by recalling the interrelationship of locational factors depicted in a version of the iron and steel game met during the previous year. These are recalled and discussed at the level of generalisation, actual examples being quoted in context to illustrate a particular point. However, to enable pupils to understand current and proposed changes in the nature and location of the industry, case studies of two or three centres illustrating the contrasting problems, eg Consett, Scunthorpe and Llanwern, are undertaken. These can be used to refine familiar generalisations concerned with locational factors, to introduce more complex ones (especially the impact of government policy), and to highlight some of the implications of the contemporary changes for the settlements involved. Finally the group of generalisations is applied to a study of the current distribution of the industry in Britain, first, to explain its origins, secondly to predict the centres likely to grow, decline and change, and ultimately to compare the pupils' predictions with the approved plans for rationalisation.

Such a sequence consolidates in hypothetical form a given platform of understanding, reverts to a case-study approach to extend and refine the group of generalisations, and finally raises the principles already understood to the level of application; a planned use of inductive and deductive approaches in combination.

Pupils of more modest ability in the same age group will obviously benefit from a more varied range of case-study material based upon small groups of carefully chosen generalisations. If the identification of two or three key ideas of importance is linked initially with the planned introduction and discussion of an appropriate example, pupils can then proceed to apply the understanding required to further case-studies. Such a selective approach seems more likely to produce educational experiences of quality for pupils of modest or low ability, although the danger of a too narrow range of content needs to be averted by a carefully balanced selection of the groups of ideas to be examined.

The foregoing discussion may illustrate how the planning of pupils' learning may be adapted to provide for a wide range of age and ability. Clearly, some of the generalisations are appropriate mainly for older and abler pupils: many, however, are capable of use at an appropriate level of complexity or abstraction in a very wide variety of school situations. No attempt, therefore, has been made to identify any universal sequence in the introduction or development of the ideas articulated.

Syllabus construction

The first and most important purpose of a subject syllabus is to establish a progressive course which gives coherence to successive years of pupils' study in a particular school and, whether taught as a separate subject or as part of a larger curriculum area, geography is no exception to the need for such planning. Once prepared, the syllabus gives direction to the work of a number of teachers but might allow for variety in individual teaching approaches on such aspects as the choice of examples or resources to be used. Such guidance is important in maintaining continuity in teaching, particularly in schools where changes of staff may be frequent. Apart

[page 46]

from the advice to those immediately concerned in teaching a subject a syllabus may also serve the function of informing teachers of other subjects of the main aspects of the work undertaken in the discipline and thereby facilitate co-operative ventures. For example, the geography syllabus may be used by geographers and mathematicians to decide where geographical work using mathematical techniques should be introduced in order to take advantage of previous teaching of the techniques in mathematics. In another ease it may be helpful in identifying the range of language skills and terms used in geography as a contribution to the use of language across the curriculum. Such contacts may help to emphasise broader educational opportunities not initially recognised within a single subject context. Apart from informing the head, who obviously needs to know in detail the work to be undertaken in school, the syllabus is a concise means of indicating to interested visitors to the school the range of work which might be expected to be in progress.

In junior and middle schools it may be the head or a designated teacher who plans and co-ordinates the schemes of work, whereas in secondary schools the responsibility for outlining the structure of a subject syllabus is normally that of the head of department, following consultation with colleagues and taking into account their particular strengths and interests. In those schools choosing to combine subjects within broad curricular areas it is often the practice for teams of teachers to plan the syllabus: where geography is one of the constituent disciplines it would seem self-evident that the planning group should include a geography teacher. Such is not always the case. Once the framework has been established the co-ordinator should initiate discussions with those who will be responsible for teaching the programme. Their delegated task will be that of working, either singly or in small groups, on specific sections within the general outline; this can lead to the development of lesson units exemplifying specific elements of the syllabus. At this stage of planning recently qualified colleagues (and students working temporarily in the school) could play a useful role by introducing recently developed ideas and techniques.

Although the form of one syllabus may vary from that of another, it is desirable for all syllabuses to include a similar range of elements. It is useful for a syllabus to start with a statement of the aims of the course; the general nature of such aims is illustrated by the following examples from the syllabus of an urban comprehensive school.

Some of the aims relating to geography are:

To provide the pupil with geographical information which may be useful in later life. To foster an interest in the study of geography for its own sake.

To develop the pupil's ability to make and justify judgements.
To foster an element of self-evaluation in each pupil of his or her own performance.
To develop the literacy, numeracy and oracy of each pupil.

To develop the pupil's awareness of some of the problems facing mankind, and to encourage an awareness of possible solutions.

[page 47]

To help the pupil become a responsible member of the community through an understanding of the origin, structure and purpose of that community.
To develop the pupil's understanding of agricultural, industrial and commercial considerations,

The generalisations set out in Chapter 3 are not in themselves a syllabus. They contain examples of the ideas which pupils should meet at an appropriate time in their course if they are to understand the work they have undertaken. The generalisations may act initially as a stimulus for teachers so that they may construct for each year a sequence of statements of simpler ideas which when grasped by the pupils will reinforce each other and so form a basis for deeper understanding. In the extracts of syllabuses which follow (pages 49-56) it is possible to identify a variety of ways in which the generalisations or geographical ideas contained in them are used.

The information to be learned needs to be specified. This listing may well be expressed in the context of closely defined objectives as in example F on page 54. There may be a series of statements that: 'The pupils will be able to name the following features on a map ... list the following facts ... demonstrate their recall or use of the following information ...' Some thought should also be given to the selection of an appropriate range and sequence of studies in order that the pupils' learning includes some contact with those aspects of the world which are considered significant. These could be selected to include the pupils' immediate neighbourhood, their home region, the United Kingdom, the EEC, other industrially advanced regions and developing areas of the world. Some knowledge of certain major world distribution patterns may also be considered necessary. Once the selection has been made the details need to be defined and built into the syllabus in terms of specific units of work and the various study areas need to be used to exemplify generalisations. Care should be taken to ensure that the work includes study at a number of different levels as indicated above - local, regional, national, international. The choice of level may depend on the nature of the particular area being studied, the immediacy of the example, the stage of conceptual development of the pupil or factors such as the desirability of developing some background knowledge of a particular area of the world.

Both the ideas and the facts may be outlined within the context of the systematic topics within geography as shown by the lists of generalisations in Part 3; alternatively they may be considered within the context of areas of the world. However, whichever framework is used, it is necessary in a syllabus to be explicit about the elements of the other which are included, For instance, in a syste-

[page 48]

matic study of 'Agriculture' it is desirable to name areas of the world from which examples will be taken, and in a regional study of Australia it is desirable to list the systematic topics to be covered. There are examples of both types of approach in the following section of extracts from syllabuses. Objectives relating to attitudes and values cannot be expressed in the same manner as those concerned with information and ideas.

However, it is important to recognise that, as stated in one syllabus, 'the content of geography is permeated with cultural, social and economic values; the methodology of the subject rests on the value assumption that phenomena may be investigated and explained in a rational manner; the actual teaching strategy adopted expresses the values that what is important is, for example, either the pupil's knowledge or his ability to develop the intellectual skills with which to acquire such knowledge; finally, the very way in which the teacher responds to the pupil and to other members of staff helps to foster certain values.'

The outlining in the syllabus of specific topics for study leads to the recognition that some topics are particularly suited to individual study, some to group study with pupils of either a range of or similar ability and that some demand a situation involving dialogue with a teacher. The range of learning approaches to be used is a useful addition to a syllabus.

The type of working group has a close relationship with the range of study skills to be developed. In the study of geography there are a number of these skills involving the use of a wide range of materials including maps, photographs, statistical representation, written materials, audio-visual materials and, of course, the local environment, and it is helpful if a scheme of work includes a reference to such skills, either linked with the individual units of work where they are to be applied and developed, or in a more general overall statement. There are other intellectual skills more closely integrated with the development and use of the geographical ideas mentioned above. The regularities of patterns and processes can be recognised and drawn out of studies of actual situations, using a variety of source materials and teaching methods to provide a framework for future thought. (See page 41.)

Resources of all types naturally form an important element in implementing the ideas of the syllabus planners. It can be of great assistance in the planning of individual lessons if the availability and location of materials is stated alongside the selected studies. Sometimes shortage or unsuitability of resources is seen as a constraint on the sort of work that can be undertaken; but often other satisfactory ways of working can be devised with careful planning.

Although an assessment of pupils' performance is implicit in any syllabus the decisions on methods of assessment and their timing are better stated explicitly. The results should show the pupils' attainment as well as indicating individual weaknesses in knowledge or skills which can then be remedied. When recorded these assessments should indicate the pupil's achievements and should be available to the next teacher taking on that pupil, whether within the same or at a different school.

A syllabus therefore should include details of general aims,

[page 49]

objectives to be achieved, systematic topics and/or areas of the world to be studied, facts to be learned, ideas to be understood and the attitudes and values to be considered; it should also include details of the skills to be developed, the scale of the units of study, details of the resources available, suggested methods of working and the assessment procedures to be used.

A syllabus is a complex document involving much hard work to formulate, and attention to its format at an early stage can minimise the need to repeat work when amendments become necessary because of changes in approaches to work, changes of staff, the addition of new resources and different areas of the world becoming prominent. If some of the syllabus elements can be kept in separate sections they can be modified with a minimum of restructuring of the whole syllabus. This is particularly important because, although the syllabus is of value in planning a course of work, pupils learn from the experiences provided in the classroom and out of doors, and it is in planning these and participating in this detailed development of the ideas expressed in the syllabus that teachers must inevitably spend much of their time and energy.

Some examples of syllabuses

The examples which follow may help to demonstrate how different schools have approached the construction of schemes of work using generalisations. Each example also illustrates some of the other elements of syllabus planning.

Example A

Teachers in a middle school have developed a scheme of work for 'integrated studies'. For each year group there is a diagram of 'main core from which themes can be selected as desired by year coordinators for development in their year group'. The diagrams are in a familiar style, and a section of that for 10-year-olds is illustrated.

[page 50]

With each diagram there is a list of possible visits in the local area, reference to material from the Schools Council project 'Science 5-13', lists of resources available and detailed suggestions for craft work. These are essential as such diagrams, while valuable for initial planning, need to be followed up in depth if the children's learning that results is to be of a good intellectual level.

Each year-team meets regularly to discuss the programme of work and these teams are organised so that they contain teachers with different interests and abilities. The teacher with particular interest in geography used statements of generalisations. First she examined the work to be covered each year and identified those generalisations which are implicit in the theme outlined in the diagram.

In several cases the formulation of a generalisation suggested new and better ways of looking at a topic. It was possible to consider the ideas connected with the topic and to suggest more difficult aspects for the able children to work on.

The teacher then looked at the overall spread of generalisations and established the range and concentration of the systematic topics such as agriculture or transport covered during the four years. For the first time it became possible to see that considerable emphasis was placed on agriculture and settlement but very little attention was given to manufacturing industries or transport. The imbalance could then be questioned, and the generalisations used as a basis for team discussions on the next sequence of work.

Example B

Two secondary schools were each studying the southern continents during Year 2 of the geography course. Each was working within a regional framework and allocating one term to each of the major southern continents. Teachers in both schools decided to re-plan the term's work on Africa, accepting the constraint that existing regional textbooks would, of necessity, remain the main book-source of information for pupils. The changes they made show significant differences.

i. In the first case the overall aim was specified as 'to promote knowledge and understanding of the relationships between man and the resources at his disposal which have created the distribution of human activity in the present-day world'. Five topics of climate, agriculture, settlement, transport and manufacturing industry were chosen and in a matrix these topics were set against columns in which generalisations and skills were listed. The content of the previous syllabus was considered and checked against the information on the matrix. The matrix was then modified both in order and in substance so as to include the development of the skills and generalisations in the topics.

ii. In the other case the teachers decided to concentrate on the overall theme of 'Population in Africa' and to look at its distribution, at the location of different ethnic groups, at migrations and also at problems associated with the growth of population. A syllabus was drawn up with generalisations

[page 51]

exemplifying these topics and with details of examples to be used in developing the ideas.

Example C

In a comprehensive school generalisations were used in restructuring the whole syllabus. The main themes were chosen and then the generalisations (key ideas) were used to exemplify the aspects of those themes which were to be developed, A small section of Year 1 looks like this:

In this geography syllabus the ideas are developed within the systematic topics; for example, the concept of 'movement' described as 'journeys to work' within 'settlements', is met in the form of 'migration' when looked at within the context of 'population'. Explicit mention of the idea alters the emphasis in teaching and in the assessment made of the pupils' understanding.

[page 52]

Exemplars for the units in this first year of the school course are drawn from the local area, Britain, and the world, though a range of scales of exemplars can be recognised within each of these areas.

This syllabus example does not show all the elements which it has been suggested should be included in a syllabus statement. The detailed use of the 'key ideas', the resources available, the skills to be developed, the methods of working and the form of assessment remain to be specified, although some of these elements are, to the experienced teacher, implicit in the choice of exemplars.

Example D

In another 11-18 school, use of generalisations in studying some topics led to the rewriting of the syllabus and also affected the nature of the tests and assessment units used during the year. So for one half-term of the second year the syllabus reads:

What is industry? Factory as a system.
Factories need raw materials.
Factories need a power supply. (Incorporate coal)
Factories need a good site.
Factories need a labour supply and market.
Managerial decisions are important (simulation) and paramount orienting factors as part of a test.

Although this example illustrates the order in which a department set about improving the quality of work the syllabus will be an even more useful document when details such as resources, skills, scale of examples and areas of study have been added.

Example E

Teachers in another school which was to be reorganised as a comprehensive school saw this as an opportunity to recast the geography syllabus and bring it more into line with recent trends in the subject. They decided to proceed cautiously and, in the first instance, to re-structure the work of Years 1 and 2 only. For the first-year syllabus four general aims were agreed upon, a list of more specific

[page 53]

objectives was then made and then five half-term units of work decided upon. These units were 'Home and school', 'Small settlements', 'Large settlements', 'Industry' and 'Farming'. Each unit was developed using a matrix as shown.

YEAR 1

The syllabus for the second year was approached rather differently as, although the same framework of headings was used, the work for this year was based on newly acquired textbooks. A section from this second-year syllabus follows:

YEAR 2 European patterns

[page 54]

The planning of this syllabus began with the identification of general ideas grouped under systematic headings; content examples have then been selected which offer significant illustrations of the operation and interaction of the principles identified. In such a planning exercise the task is complicated by the associated need to ensure that the completed syllabus is more than a collection of units but covers a range of content which provides pupils with a sound basis of geographical knowledge. In this case, for example first-year topics are chosen entirely from the local area and the United Kingdom, while the second year includes studies of other developed nations in Western Europe. It is interesting to note that in planning how to assess pupils' progress, the assessment of 'skills to be acquired' tends to be easier than determining the information pupils should be able to recall.

Example F

A syllabus from another comprehensive school geography department is of particular interest because of the importance placed on objectives in its drafting. The third-year scheme of work for pupils in the upper band on 'Selected studies from the USA' is introduced by some general aims and an outline of the course in which six regions are listed and the main points of geographical significance to be stressed are briefly noted. Each of these regions is then examined under the headings of aims, objectives and resources, as Unit 3 shows.

Unit Three - North Dakota

Aims

1. To show significant aspects of the human geography of a rural, thinly-populated area of the US agricultural interior.
2. To show the problems of living in a vast landscape under extreme climatic conditions.
3. To show the organisation of extensive commercial grain farming.
4. To show the effects of rural depopulation on agricultural areas.
5. To show the cycle of settlement, cultivation and desertion.

Objectives

Seventeen terminal objectives are listed for this unit. Among these the pupil is expected to be able to:

2. Outline the Great Plains on a map of the USA.
4. Locate the state of North Dakota on a map of the Great Plains.
5. Describe the landscape of North Dakota.
6. Describe the main features of a continental climate.
8. Use a climatic graph to calculate:

annual temperature range
average monthly temperature
total annual rainfall.

[page 55]

17. Suggest (in a simulated situation) a solution to a simple logistical problem typical of the Great Plains, eg a new bus route.
(Eight other objectives are listed.)

Resources

A. Slide set, The Great Plains/Wheat.
B. OP transparencies: The Great Plains, Langdon, North Dakota, climatic graphs.
C. Duplicated materials:

map - The Great Plains
worksheet - North Dakota
simulation game - a new bus route
test item III.

This is a good example of a syllabus where the initial emphasis was on content selection; once the areas to be studied had been defined the identification of general ideas helped to select and focus attention upon significant aspects of the study. In such an approach it is also important to ensure that the relationships, patterns and processes which are emphasised in this section of the scheme of work are significant enough to assist pupils in understanding other areas of the world.

Example G

An education officer decided to encourage the development of a humanities course for pupils between the ages of 8 and 13 years. It was intended to produce a handbook and then to develop units of work which would be available to teachers from the curriculum resources centre. Groups of subject-teachers, already well established, were asked to outline the main aspects of their subjects which should be included in the overall scheme. The geographers identified the main considerations as: (i) basic ideas, (ii) systematic topics, (iii) scale of examples and world coverage, (iv) skills.

The basic ideas were concerned with location in terms of points, lines and areas and with the processes which influence such locations and so give rise to spatial patterns. Account would also be taken of chance factors. Study of the basic ideas would be in the context of the systematic topics treated at a variety of scales and with a view to the acquisition of specified skills. Quotations from the original document follow:

BASIC IDEAS
'Location' and 'links' are the two basic ideas in geography. Location can be thought of in terms of points, lines and areas; examples of these might be settlements, roads and industrial regions. By links we mean the processes which influence locations - the factors which affect spatial patterns. Locations and links can be looked at on a variety of scales. Equally important is the element of chance in patterns and processes. These basic ideas can be studied within the context of any systematic topics in geography.

[page 56]

SYSTEMATIC TOPICS
By the age of 13 a pupil should have studied some aspects and have gained an understanding of key ideas in each of the following topics: settlement, physical environment, agriculture, manufacturing industry. (About 10 major generalisations were then listed for each of these topics.)

There are other systematic topics which might also feature to some degree in a child's studies, These include:

i. Population - main aspects are distribution, classification, migration and change. These are looked at in more detail in the section on social studies in this document.
ii. Transport. For example, modes of transport, changes, networks.

SCALE AND WORLD COVERAGE
Children should study these ideas by looking at examples on a number of different scales: the small locality, the national scale, continental scale and world scale. Where possible, the local environment should be the starting point.

In addition the examples should be drawn from a variety of areas, such as the British Isles and the rest of the EEC, other developed regions, the developing nations of Africa, Asia or Latin America.

SKILLS
Children will develop a great variety of skills in studying geography. Many of these have been outlined on an earlier page since they apply equally in other disciplines. The map skills listed below are particularly characteristic of geographical studies.

There followed a list of skills involved in using maps written in a form that children should (a) appreciate that ... and (b) be able to ...

In this example the choice of a systematic approach to geography was influenced partly by the desire to facilitate the links with other subjects within the general area of humanities. It is significant that the officer coordinating the scheme wished to provide guidelines rather than a unified course for all schools and envisaged that schools might choose to study humanities either as an integrated area or as separate subjects. Giving each subject the space for its ideas and skills and topics to be outlined enables this choice to be made on a firm foundation. It is also important to notice that the detailed units of work were to be developed from the careful planning outlined here. Whether these units are used in geography taught separately, or within an integrated course, the required structure and quality of the work are clear. The scheme provides a sound basis for those children in the area who transfer between schools at 13 and move into specialist study, and recognises, too, that the school has a responsibility to plan a course which is wide-ranging in terms of the geographical ideas studied since for many pupils this will be most, if not the whole, of their geographical education.

[page 57]

Appendix

Mapwork

These statements should be seen as a set of goals for pupils to work towards. Each area of mapwork is introduced by a general instructional objective amplified by a series of more specific statements the order of which does not suggest a particular sequence in learning.

A. Appreciate maps as a shorthand representation of an area involving visual expression in place of complex narrative.

1. Study maps as sources of interest as well as information.
2. Select maps as a means of communication.
3. Organise information to be clearly displayed on maps.
4. Identify maps as useful investigatory tools.
5. Modify ideas based on map evidence in the light of additional information.

1. Demonstrate practically that a spherical surface, such as that of the globe has to be stretched in order to represent it on a flat surface.
2. Show that the stretching can take place in any direction.
3. Compare with their counterparts on the globe the distances, directions, shapes and areas of land masses and oceans which result from the differences in stretching.
4. Detect that distortion increases with the size of the area.

1. Draw and label symbols used on small-scale OS maps.
2. Compile a key (or legend) to illustrate classified or grouped information in a map.
3. Identify items or categories of land use and geology on atlas maps from the key (or legend) provided.
4. Reproduce symbols to represent on a sketch map, point, line and surface features on the ground.
5. Identify the range of information available on a map.
6. List other information which, if mapped, would help in the investigation of given problems.
7. Verify that some symbols on small-scale maps are disproportionate to their real size,

1. Plot locations from grid references or by latitude and longitude.
2. State grid references or the latitude and longitude of given locations,
3. Search a gazetteer as a guide to locations.

[page 58]

E. Understand the purpose of the alternative statements of scale.

1. Identify the amount of magnification or reduction of compared maps of an area using the representative fraction, eg 1:25000 compared with 1:100 000).
2. Measure, using maps of progressively smaller scales, the straight line distance between two points correct to the nearest quarter mile (quarter kilometre).
3. Measure, using maps of progressively smaller scales, distances along winding routes with a tolerance of half a mile (half kilometre) above or below the correct distance.
4. Estimate, using progressively smaller scales, distances on a map to the nearest half mile (half kilometre).
5. Estimate distances on the ground within a 25 per cent margin of error.

1. Simplify a route map topologically.
2. Extract information from topological maps.
3. Transform a distance-scale map into one based on time or cost.

1. Plot the cardinal points of the compass.
2. Find directions and bearings using a simple prismatic compass.
3. Orientate a map using a simple prismatic compass.
4. Verify a position by re-section using a simple prismatic compass.
5. Describe a route from a map using directions and estimated distances.
6. Follow a route on a map (or on the ground using a map) from a statement giving directions and estimated distances.
7. Orientate a large-scale plan (1:2500) using surrounding buildings as reference points.
8. Relate one's position on the ground to a location on a large-scale plan, eg 1:2500 or 1:10 000.

1. Isolate highland from lowland shown on a map.
2. Generalise about the height of land in a given area.
3. Describe the nature of selected slopes in terms of gentle, steep, even, concave or convex.
4. Identify the overall shape of a landscape and add descriptions of more detailed features within it.
5. Distinguish between spurs and valleys.
6. Draw sketch sections and accurate sections from prepared material or from large-scale maps (minimum scale 1:25 000).
7. Identify simple relief features from cross-section shapes.
8. Compute an average gradient between fixed points.
9. Determine diagrammatically whether one point is visible from another and shade the extent of 'dead ground'.

[page 59]

I. Demonstrate the drainage patterns of an area.

1. Subdivide an area into drainage basins.
2. Discriminate between streams and rivers.
3. Infer the location of a spring line.
4. Outline the main directions of drainage.
5. Compute a density of drainage within basins.

1. Generalise on the location, extent and distribution of settlements and vegetation.
2. Separate patterns of communication in an area in terms of type, directions and densities.
3. Infer human activity from direct map evidence. (NB. Beware of the danger of enforced interpretation without supporting evidence.)

1. Extract information from special-purpose maps.
2. Generalise about distributions from these maps.
3. Sample information from these maps.
4. Relate distributions of physical phenomena shown on two maps, eg rainfall amount and relief.
5. Select the appropriate method to illustrate simple statistical information on a map, eg dot maps, choropleth maps, isoline maps, maps with pictorial symbols, bar graphs and histograms.
6. Distinguish between maps which give quantitative and non-quantitative statements.
7a. Translate the divisions on quantitative maps as transition zones.
7b. Translate quantitative maps as indicators of trends and regional patterns as well as providing comparative values at particular points.

1. Infer weather conditions in various parts of the British Isles given a map showing either a simple depression or an occlusion or an anti-cyclone affecting the region.
2. Construct an isobar map given pressure details of 20 weather stations over the British Isles and North Atlantic.
3. Indicate the location of a simple frontal system on this map given additional details of temperature, cloud and rainfall conditions at those 20 stations.

1. Edit information into a sketch map.
2. Construct simple topographical maps from a narrative using accepted symbols, eg from the 1 in, 2½ in or 1:50 000 OS maps.

[page 60]

3a. Draw from memory a labelled map of a small, well-known area showing estimated distances and directions.
3b. Compare this map with a plan of the locality.
4. Survey a small, irregularly shaped area using compass traverse, chain survey and/or home-made clinometer procedures.

Create maps freely.
1. Draw maps of imaginary areas or from stories etc, in the manner, say, of Tolkien's Middle-earth, Stevenson's Treasure Island; maps of 'my island', 'my secret valley', 'the second moon' etc.

2. Make maps with symbols as a means to develop language.

1. Describe a scene with the combined evidence of oblique photographs and map.
2. Amplify map evidence from stereoscopic pairs of air photographs.
3. Identify the limitations of the bird's-eye view of a map compared with the information available from an oblique photograph.