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YOUNG children, when they draw and paint what they see or have imagined, use signs and symbols of their own - early forms of expression akin to the idiom of primitive peoples. Understanding teachers recognise these signs and symbols as a primitive language, not always intelligible to grown-up people, and respect the sincerity with which a child, having explored his surroundings, gives form to his impressions. The teacher's role is to see that the opportunities and materials are provided which make this early experience possible, and to show sympathy with what the children want to do.

Throughout the three stages of primary education the teacher should know clearly what she wants their art education to do for the children and plan their art activities accordingly. Art education should train and develop their general artistic sensitivity, and should enable them as they progress, through experience, practice and teaching, to acquire increasing control over tools and materials. It should stimulate their creative interest - both imaginative and practical - and help them to gain self-control and poise.

The teacher's skill will be shown in knowing how to lead when seeming to follow, how to inspire without unduly dominating, when to give instruction and when to stand aside and leave the children to learn from their own self-guided efforts.

There should be no cleavage between "art" and "craft"; it should be possible for the child to use the particular method and material to which he is drawn by temperament, his need at the moment, or the stage of his development.

The nursery school should be a pleasant place in which the children feel safe and can experiment, play and grow up happily. It should be homelike and cheerful, with pleasant colour, friendly faces, toys and things that arouse interest and curiosity, and with the natural beauties of flowers, trees, garden and pets.

Here in his play the child will experience all sorts of æsthetic pleasures: the beauty of fingers seen under water in a bowl in the sunshine, soap bubbles, the balance of brick on brick, the satisfaction of hammering a round peg into the right round hole, the beauty of sound, the delight of making coloured shapes all wet with

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paint on a piece of dry paper. There is no question at this stage of set lessons or of looking for definite results in the shape of works of art. The teacher will want to give the child all possible experience in handling materials and using things, so that he may learn about the objects around him in a natural way. She will leave him free to pursue his activities in his own way, while trying to guide him by wise encouragement.

The child can, of course, usefully be shown how to use a tool. For example, the teacher can explain that it is not good for a brush to be jabbed down on paper so that all its bristles are fanned out, and can show him how to use it. The child's store of ideas can be increased by talking to him and telling him interesting things about the world he lives in and by directing his observation. But the teacher can best help him by leaving him as a rule to make his own use of the new knowledge he has gained.

Between the ages of 5 and 7 children go through a period of rapid change, growing in size, height and muscular development. This is not always accompanied by an equal development in muscular co-ordination or adjustment of vision. The natural movements relate mainly to the larger muscles, and attempts at fine control may impose strain. There are other characteristics affecting children's interest and artistic expression at this stage - their pleasure in repetition and rhythmic pattern and their healthy curiosity. At first interested in an activity for its own sake, a child later comes to value results, measured in his own terms, and is able to profit by the experiments his curiosity leads him to make.

Infants draw and construct from what is in their minds: they do not copy directly. Any attempt to make them draw directly from nature or to copy stylised interpretations of nature merely confuses them and produces results wholly insincere. While there are certain familiar ways in which young children will tend to depict a man or a tree, they use their own individual symbols according to temperament and mental image. The teacher will do best by helping the child to find his own ways of representing what he sees or hears, according to the workings of his own mind. The blue donkey and the six-legged horse are features of a perfectly natural phase of expression and no attempt should be made to force the child to realistic reproduction which can only curb or destroy his spontaneity.

Naturally the children will not all want to be doing the same things at the same time, and while there will occasionally be a place for the class lesson they should be left largely to work independently

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or in natural groups. The room in which they work and play should have in it all kinds of material for their use and they should be trained to go to fetch what they want for themselves from accessible shelves and cupboards. They should be free to express their ideas and try their experiments in media of their own choice.

The kinds of materials suggested for infants are: powder and poster paints, large brushes, soft pencils, large chalks, paper of various shapes, sizes and colours (never the limiting "drawing book"), large lumps of clay and a place for using it where mess does not matter, easels and boards, tins and boxes, bricks, fitting and sorting materials, pieces of fabric, strawboard and cardboard, dowel rods, cotton reels and cartons - in fact anything and everything that may fill the needs of the moment in a child's plan.

Infants can do more than is sometimes supposed: they are quite able to make rough constructions in wood, using a hammer and nails and a saw, or to print on fabric a simple repeating unit of their own cutting from potato or rubber, or to sew something together with coarse thread and a big needle. These kinds of activities, however, should arise from individual or collective interests and not be forced on the whole class by the teacher.

Realising that art is an activity natural to young children, the teacher will make use of it as a starting-point and means of education to help children to read and write, to measure and to count. Handwriting, for example, is a primary form of art: rhythmic pattern-making with the greatest freedom of brush, chalk or big soft pencil can prepare the way. The children should learn to make large round well-filled shapes with good proportions: the size of the writing can vary according to the child's wishes, provided beauty of shape does not suffer and eyestrain is not caused. The tool used should be not too fine and should be easily held in a small hand. Children should be encouraged to sign their names on their pictures as part of the general scheme of composition, and to make their own little books with simply decorated covers. Their number work, if written down, should be set out in as attractive and decorative a way as may be with large figures and picture numbers spaced naturally on blank paper. As a rule, the children should be given the freedom of the paper without guiding lines and should form a habit of getting their lines of writing and figures straight and well-spaced, just as they would consider the arrangement of their subject in drawing or painting. Some teachers may, however, prefer to use single-lined paper.

Care must be taken that the material provided is not such as may impose a strain on the eyesight or too fine muscular adjustment. But it should be remembered that many, if not most, children find great

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satisfaction and a sense of security in playing with small things - perhaps because they seem appropriate to their own small stature. As a rule, a child will not choose or persist in an activity which causes him eyestrain or strained muscular control. In the infants school art is not art for its own sake, and success or failure is not to be judged by formal results of isolated lessons. Having made sensible provision of materials and being ready to give stimulus and guidance when really needed, the teacher may well let the children get on with their own affairs with as little interference as possible. In this way they will gain self-confidence, and develop independence and vigour in the use of materials and imagery.

Sometimes in the change to the junior school all that the infants school has done is ignored; and too often the junior stage is regarded as a preparation for the secondary school, and primary skills are treated in a way which divorces them from the experience and natural development of the child as a junior. It is true that the several stages in the process of education are continuous and interrelated, but it is important to recognise that each has its own problems and presents its own opportunities.

From the age of 7 to 11 the child is developing finer muscular control and finer discrimination in sight and hearing, while his power of sustaining voluntary attention is increasing and visual memory and visual imagery are becoming stronger. Interests become more particularised and objective, and knowledge is acquired in practical ways increasingly defined and localised.

Play is still a dominant factor and means of education, but it is changing in character and becoming more individualistic and competitive. The child feels his growing powers; he wants to measure his strength and to widen his horizon. His attention is held by the things he can make and do, and his urge to construct has all the vital force of an instinct. Now is the time to let boys and girls explore some of the paths travelled by primitive men and women - to experience through experiment the early stages of the traditional crafts, such as weaving, pottery, basketry, the making of simple forms of dwelling or of means of transport. The junior can spin, weave and dye; can make pots and clay figures and take part in the baking and firing of them; can carve or construct from a variety of materials with simple tools; in fact will try his hand on anything that can be made available for him.

Handwriting at this stage should gradually become easier and more flowing, and the children will begin to appreciate its usefulness as a

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means of record and communication. The handicap of writing with a fine nib may well be deferred and the broad pen or more easily controlled pencil remain in use. In some junior schools it is the custom in the lower classes to continue the separate letter forms used in the infants school, script writing being changed to a running hand as the child progresses up the school. Where this custom is followed, it is suggested that the use of capital and lower-case letters of good form and sound tradition should continue in the art lessons, to help shape a formal hand and as a foundation for lettering later on. Letters based on Roman hand-made lettering, and careful attention to layout, will afford excellent practice in planning and design.

It is necessary to consider what part the teacher has to play in the development of technical skill. The junior child should not be subjected to the kind of logical syllabus in which the choice of subjects is designed to produce carefully graded skills. In the natural order of things and following his own instinct to construct and portray he will in fact, through trial and error, develop some skill and a measure of technique because he wants to get on with his job and to make something that satisfies him. So long as the child sees the need to improve his knowledge and skill in order to achieve his ends he will take time and trouble and will readily appeal to the teacher for help and advice. This, however, will not be enough. There is a place for class lessons in the proper use of tools, and it is only common sense to short-circuit certain processes by giving instruction in the use of tools and materials after the children have had the opportunity to experiment. In weaving, for example, children can make all kinds of primitive looms, but at the same time it gives them confidence and skill to learn certain established ways of warping, raising threads and so on, and they enjoy the stability of a well-made loom.

Drawing and painting directly from nature do not come naturally as a rule to children before the adolescent stage. The teacher can show them how to use their equipment and can help them to increase their store of images through observation, but she cannot teach them how to "draw" for they will still be drawing "out of their heads". They should therefore be left free to experiment, to use all kinds of ways and media, to draw with charcoal or pencil if they want to, or go direct at the matter with paint and brush. Observation may be guided and work encouraged and constructively and sympathetically criticised. They should not pass their lives in a class-room surrounded by the works of the previous class. A lively class of children certainly pointed a moral when they stuck a label with the words "This House for Sale" on the beautifully executed doll's house which was the result of a year's project by their predecessors.

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The classrooms should be places of real activity, and in particular the "general purposes" room should have all the fitments needed - water, gas, storage for tools and equipment, provision for exhibiting work, and furniture that can be easily moved and stacked away.

The staff of a junior school should include one member who is specially skilled in art and can help and advise the other class teachers. Or it may be possible to have a specialist in art with knowledge of young children to help or advise a group of teachers, in several schools, while teaching part-time in one of them. For the sake of the harmonious and steady development of the children it is essential that the teacher at each of the three stages in primary education should know something of the aims and methods of the schools dealing with the children at the other two stages.

The aim should be to ensure so far as possible that children on leaving the primary stage behind them will have developed sufficient interest and appreciation, and acquired sufficient self-confidence and control of materials and tools, to enable them to go ahead with the forms of art and craft work that await them in their secondary schools.

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IT IS no longer necessary to defend the inclusion of art and crafts in the curriculum of secondary schools. Art has ceased to be simply a frill and holds its place as an essential element, in some form or other, in a sound general education. The art and craft subjects provide an outlet for creative ability, stimulate the imagination, develop discrimination in design and the sense of craftsmanship - a standard of finish and achievement applicable to all kinds of skilled work.

The answer to the question "What should be taught?" must depend very largely on the personal beliefs and interests and the practical qualifications of the art teacher himself, who will always teach with most confidence the craft of which he is master. While, therefore, there are a number of features all well-balanced courses should include, it is right and proper that the art teacher should make the best use of his own special knowledge and skill.

The following are the main general considerations governing the planning of a course:

(i) Scope should be given both for the naturally imaginative child and for the child who though not gifted artistically can learn something which appeals to his practical abilities.

(ii) Wherever possible, the pupils' work in the arts and crafts should be related to their work in other subjects of the curriculum.

(iii) The course should be planned as a whole: water-tight compartments between different art and craft subjects should be avoided.

(iv) The value of pupils working as a group should be remembered throughout. This does not preclude giving a pupil a job to carry out as his share of the work of the team.

(v) Whole classes may be expected to work at the same task during the first year or two; later, when individual proclivities are becoming marked, it may be better to divide classes into groups, to do different kinds of work.

(vi) In any case, the older the pupil the more necessary it is that he should be given a substantial job to carry through to a finish - and this will mean more individual attention.

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If the teacher is to use his special qualifications to the full, it is clear that the courses planned will vary, perhaps substantially, according to the nature of those qualifications.

For example:

A. Where the teacher's special interest is in pictorial art, and he possesses a good knowledge of the craft side of book production. The lower forms might start by dividing their time between drawing and painting from observation, memory and imagination, and an introduction to book crafts in the form of simple binding, lettering and lino-cut illustration. Such a course should very quickly lead to the merging of the pictorial work with the craft work; and each pupil would soon be producing whatever appealed most to him in the way of illustrated broadsheets, booklets, and so on. Skill in making Iino-cut patterns for end-papers, and Iino-cut illustrations, some perhaps printed in colour, would also be developed, and the printing of fabrics would be something to look forward to as a fresh outlet for design in a future session. Having made a start of this kind with the lower forms, it should not be a difficult matter to build on the interest so created and carry out more ambitious work to a higher standard as the pupils grow older. In a girls' school, useful collaboration might be arranged with the teachers dealing with dress and house-furnishing crafts by providing good printed textiles to be made up in their classes.

The possibility of the pupils using the skill they have acquired to contribute to all kinds of activities connected with school life in general, and with other subjects of study, such as history and geography, will be obvious. If a small hand-press and the necessary equipment for printing can be secured, then indeed the art and craft course will have established itself most fully as a means of relating work done in school to practical activities in the outside world. The boys or girls who have personally planned, printed, illustrated and bound a book, or played a part as a member of a team which has produced one, should have an informed outlook on the varied and vast output of the great industry of printing which plays so large a part in our lives. It may also be hoped that their appreciation of the written language will have been stimulated at the same time.

B. Where the teacher, while reasonably skilled in drawing and painting, is chiefly interested in the textile crafts, and has a thorough knowledge of dressmaking and design, of weaving and of embroidery. From the early stages, such activities as embroidery, the making of soft toys and

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of puppets offer great opportunities for the creative impulses of children. Puppets, especially, offer an outlet for their sense of character and appropriateness in devising and in dressing them. The making, however, of things of practical use as well as puppets and toys should not be neglected, and the development of the crafts associated with needlework and dressmaking offers endless scope: quite young children can make delightful woven scarves and other small articles of dress, and can be taught how gay embroidery may be used in dress and in household articles. The course can be planned from simple beginnings to larger undertakings in the later stages where ambitious standards can be aimed at both in craftsmanship and in design. At the same time, drawing and painting from observation and imagination may be taught, not only for their own sakes, but in order to provide a flow of inspiration in design for textile crafts. As time goes on the pupils will sort themselves out, and some may gain more by concentrating on the crafts which specially appeal to them for their practical value, while others, who have a taste for drawing and painting, may spend a larger proportion of their time on work of a pictorial kind. Girls, after being in the hands of a teacher of the sort now under consideration, should have received a real impetus to appreciate colour, style and texture in dress and furnishing, and to look for good standards of workmanship, as well as to make the most of whatever gifts they themselves possess.

C. Where the teacher is expert in the crafts of woodwork and light metalwork or silversmithing. The importance of teaching boys to use tools in order to plan and make simple articles of daily use in wood and metal needs no emphasis. The value of such an education, in the confidence to be derived from learning to carry out a thoroughly satisfactory practical job and to appreciate the need for good proportion and the right use of materials, is clear, as is the usefulness of an understanding of traditional methods. The relationship of such work to daily needs and daily life in the school, as well as to the whole business of living, presents a fascinating range of possibilities to the competent teacher. When work of this kind is carried on in a boys' school side by side with a course run by a pictorial and bookcraft teacher of the kind first described, a rich education in art and craft as a whole can be provided.

D. Where the teacher possesses a knowledge of drawing and painting, combined with the instincts and training of a sculptor. A course divided between painting and drawing from observation, memory and imagination on the one hand, and modelling and carving on the other, may lead to most inspiring and satisfying achievements, especially in

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the later stages. Carving in wood or stone, and modelling, have a great attraction for many boys and girls, and provide an excellent medium for the development of a real appreciation and understanding of beauty in form and in material. Although there is scope in such a course for making things of stone and wood to serve practical uses, the products of carving and modelling may take the form of objects of artistic interest rather than of practical use. Carvings of animals, which have sometimes been successfully done with living creatures as models, are one example. There is, however, the likelihood that any teacher endowed in the way suggested will also have a strong interest in the craft of pottery. Here, much can be done, in school, which will in a true sense educate the pupils by developing their craftsmanship and their ability to appreciate form and material while they are practising a craft which has a clear bearing on the needs of daily life. This has proved feasible without very elaborate equipment. A great deal can be achieved by making built-up articles and articles pressed in moulds, without a potter's wheel. If one can be provided, however, it is bound to create interest and will give a chance to the more able pupils to exercise a most satisfying form of craftsmanship.

While in the foregoing the emphasis has been on craft work rather than on drawing and painting, there can be no doubt that drawing and painting are of great importance for boys and girls, since they provide a unique outlet for creative and imaginative abilities as well as a useful training in observation.

By the time that pupils who have been encouraged to draw and paint with freedom in the primary school have reached the age of 11, their ability to record their impressions from memory and observation, and their confidence in doing so, should be ripe for development side by side with their creative ability.

Some children will be intensely interested in painting their impressions of the visual world, and will have developed powers of realism from an early age. Others, differently gifted, will continue to take real pleasure in painting in a less realistic way. But both may produce work rich in colour and imagination. In the teaching, the two aspects should not be thought of as separate. The best subjects are, indeed, generally taken from the pupils' everyday life, whether in town or country. Some may profitably tackle fanciful subjects, but the danger is that pupils will fall back on their memory of pictures and illustrations rather than rely on their observation and create something which is really theirs. An example is the tendency found,

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EVERY art school must be adapted to the needs of the area it serves. For example, the school which provides for a thickly populated manufacturing area with staple industries dependent upon good design and craftsmanship, while not neglecting the cultural side of its work, should concentrate on the special requirements of local industry. The successful development of this part of its work should react favourably upon the other work of the school as a whole and will give it a distinctive character. On the other hand, the small school in a residential area may be expected to develop strongly the cultural aspect while at the same time meeting the needs of its industrial students.

Just as important as the efficiency of each single art school is the relation of all the art schools in an area to one another, and to schools and classes of other kinds. Effective co-operation will enable the art school to extend its influence, will lead to better staffing and higher standards of work, and, above all, will ensure that each student receives the kind of instruction best suited to his needs and to the stage at which he has arrived. The advantages of regional organisation will be dealt with under several of the headings which follow later, but it may be useful here to summarise briefly the chief features to be looked for in a good scheme:

(1) The formation of a regional committee, including the principals of the art schools. This committee should meet at each school in turn, to enable all concerned to get to know the resources of each school at first hand.

(2) The making of a survey of the industrial and other needs of the area in so far as they can be met by art education, and the planning of future developments in relation to the area as a whole.

(3) The establishment of a central college of art and crafts for the region, or, as has been done in one area where that proved impracticable, the division of functions between the few most important schools of art.

(4) The establishment of friendly relations between the art school and all other types of institution which can usefully be

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linked up with it - by the organisation of special courses for teachers, or of joint courses (with technical institutions, for instance); by sharing staff with other schools and institutions, or in other ways.

(5) The sharing of staff (especially professional and industrial specialists) between several art schools, and the employment of the principals or members of art school staffs to advise on the teaching of artistic subjects in other schools. In short, a plan by which the right man or woman will be found in the right place.

(6) The concentration of students ripe for advanced work, or requiring highly specialised instruction, in the schools best able to provide for them. This calls for fees, travelling allowances, etc., to enable all such students in the region to attend the right school or schools.

(7) The issue of a joint prospectus or handbook setting out very clearly the whole range of full-time and part-time courses and subjects provided by the art schools and classes in the region, for the benefit of all teachers and students as well as the general public.

The reference to a joint prospectus brings us to the question of giving publicity to the work of art schools. Too much advertisement can scarcely be given to the work of a really good one, and such a school will find a hundred convincing ways of making known what it can do. The successful careers of past students and the reputation which members of the staff can command as practitioners, or successful participation in local artistic enterprises by students and staff, will reflect credit on the school. Moreover, the stimulus which may be given to students by such undertakings as the making of costumes and settings for a pageant or painting decorations in a local school or hospital is bound to be of real value in their education as artists. The same is true of exhibitions of art school work, which are of great importance. Experience shows that they can be planned in such a way as to be of real interest not only to the students and their friends and relations, but to the public - including the business man, who, it may be hoped, will wish to see what contribution the school can make to his problems. What is more, no lively school considers

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that it is doing its job until those who are interested in artistic matters, although they may never become students in the regular way, look upon their local school of art as a centre where they can make some acquaintance with the best contemporary work and where there will constantly be something in the way of lectures and exhibitions, as well as social activities, likely to interest them. Such a school will keep closely in touch with its old students, who may be expected to form the nucleus of a group of interested people of this kind even if they no longer attend the practical classes.

To show what was being done shortly before the war, an Appendix (Appendix I) has been added in which is described in some detail the scope and organisation of four existing schools serving different types of locality.

The outbreak of the War roughly coincided with the centenary of the state-aided art school as we know it to-day in this country, and it is interesting to reflect that a hundred years ago committees were recommending the setting up of schools of art which should be something more than academies of fine art and should render real service to industry. If the members of those committees were to come back to earth and see some of the most successful schools to-day, they would no doubt be gratified to find that so much is now being done in them for industrial needs. They would certainly be not a little surprised at the practical form which that work takes, because, while the advocates of the "industrial" art school in those earlier days felt that the schools should make a contribution to the improvement of design for manufactured goods, they do not all seem to have realised that to teach design on paper alone was of little use. The old "National Competition", which included an exhibition of designs done by art students, did nothing to change this attitude except in so far as it drew attention to the inadequacy of an easel and drawing-board training for the designer for manufacture; and it was left to a few far-seeing people in the schools themselves to realise that the proof of the success of a design lay in the making, and that it was through practical work in the material that the designer should be educated. This method was adopted by pioneering schools such as the Colleges of Art at Birmingham and Leicester and the London Central School of Art and Crafts. It is certainly true that to-day there are schools up and down the country where the lead given by well-qualified artists and craftsmen who are acting as instructors has resulted in a genuine quickening of interest in good design on the part of those already employed locally in branches of industry and

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commerce in which artistic considerations are important, as well as in providing a realistic training for those who intend to enter such employment.

Unless, however, the confidence of the man of business has first been secured, all efforts by art schools to give constructive help to industry and commerce are bound to be stillborn. When the business man is satisfied that the school is out to help him and his employees, and that those in it are ready to seek his advice on industrial and commercial needs, there is a reasonable chance that the industrialist will play his part by recruiting those trained in the school, and also by releasing his employees for further training during working hours. When it has first been established that students can be turned out well fitted to earn their livings in the industry in question, the art school is in a fair way to know that the industrialist is likely to appreciate a good lead in design.

A common practice which often leads to good results is the formation of advisory committees, containing representatives both of employers and of employees, in relation to industrial and commercial activities. These committees provide opportunities for the industrialist to have a say in planning courses of study for trade students.

A very useful contribution can be made by the industrialist in taking students into his firm for part-time works experience during their training, for it is of the greatest advantage to the intending designer to have had the experience of working under actual industrial conditions as part of his course. Some successful experiments of this kind have been made, and it is much to be hoped that the practice will grow.

In the foregoing paragraphs the need for the school to have in mind the industrial and commercial aspects has been strongly emphasised, but it is clearly the duty of the art school at the same time to set the highest standards in design and craftsmanship. Given the right sort of accommodation, the school provides the right environment in which to strive after perfection, and it might indeed be held that the main reason for the existence of art schools is that they should bring to bear on matters of design in industry and commerce the fund of artistic knowledge acquired by the designer in the study of purely artistic problems. This is clearly brought out in a practical way by the useful and happy co-operation which may be found existing between the members of the staff who have been trained primarily as artists and the instructors whose background is chiefly industrial. Printing and book-production generally, painting and decorating, cabinet-making, and the metal, jewellery and dress trades, are among the branches of work in which this should occur.

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The principle that art education should be considered as a whole, and that the work in the art school should be linked to that done in primary and secondary schools, is clearly recognised where the principal of the art school, as in some areas, acts as adviser on art instruction generally. Whether he be given any such official status or not, however, it is clearly important that he should establish good relations with head masters and head mistresses of other schools, for a more enduring link can be forged by good personal relations than in any other way. They are bound to have a useful effect on the arrangements for recruitment to art school courses, whether full-time or part-time, and on the provision by the art school of the right kind of classes for teachers in other types of school, a matter which will be dealt with more fully later on.

The place of the art school in relation to the training colleges is dealt with under the heading of the training of teachers.

Turning to the important question of the relations between art schools and technical schools, the first thing to be borne in mind is that, while in the large majority of cases the school of art is self-governing, it is sometimes part of a larger institution providing for many branches of further education.

There are held to be advantages and disadvantages in either case, which will not be discussed here. The following considerations, however, demand notice. Where the art school is not self-governing, it is essential that the head of the art school should be given the right measure of independence. He must, for example, be encouraged to make personal contacts with representatives of the business community and outside bodies generally. He should have proper access to the governing body; and discretion in the appointment of art school staff and in drawing up the curriculum for the art school in the light of his professional knowledge and experience. On the other hand, it must be recognised that the principal of the whole institution is as much responsible for the full development of the art school as of any other department in the institution. Finally, the accommodation for all branches of work coming under the art school ought, as far as is practicable, to be grouped together as a unit.

Students whose needs can best be met by their taking joint courses, in which they study some subjects in the art school and some in the technical school, should receive every encouragement to do so, and arrangements should be made to ensure that this occurs. The organisation of a "board of studies" for each branch in which such joint courses are arranged has proved useful. The various teachers

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IT WILL be clear from what has already been said that the first qualification for the teacher of art and craft subjects is that he should himself be a competent practitioner. This does not apply so much to those who will deal with younger boys and girls, though it will be all to the good if they, too, are something of artists themselves.

But a practical qualification as an artist or craftsman will not in itself suffice to make a teacher. Some rare spirits have a natural aptitude for teaching, and need less help than others in learning how, as teachers, to make the most of what they themselves know and can do as artists. But even those rare spirits will be all the better for some useful experience with classes before they settle down to teaching posts, and there can be no doubt that all intending teachers should take every opportunity to learn something about the ways of children and to appreciate the point of view of boys and girls.

The artist or craftsman who will teach older students in art schools would not, on the face of it, appear to need much in the way of "pedagogics", yet there is a great deal for him to learn before he can be sure that he will make a success of passing his knowledge on to his pupils. Moreover, many who may spend most of their careers teaching older students will have to do with teachers of art in other types of school, and they may reach positions of responsibility where it is most desirable that they should have an informed outlook on problems of teaching boys and girls. Another consideration is that many art schools have among their pupils youngsters whose management calls for some real skill in class teaching, as distinct from individual teaching.

In this country a system has been adopted whereby the fully-trained teacher of art and crafts who qualifies through the Ministry's system of art examinations shall hold a qualification which is current in any type of school in which he will teach. Water-tight compartments in training are thus avoided, and this carries with it the double advantage that the teacher so trained is not debarred from transferring from one type of school to another, as would be the case were his qualification limited to one kind of institution, and that the future holder of a responsible position, such as the headship of an art school, will have been encouraged during his student days to see the problem of art education as a whole.

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FOUR existing schools, serving the needs of localities of differing types, are described in this Appendix. Where numbers of students are given, the figures are the latest available before the war.

The first example is a large College of Art and Crafts, situated in a county borough with a population of over a quarter of a million in which the manufacture of dress and hosiery are predominant staple industries. Such activities as printing and advertising, architecture, the building crafts and the retail trades, are also strongly developed. The College is well equipped and organised, both to prepare students to enter industry and commerce and to provide further instruction for those already employed. For example, a steady supply of specially selected students are drafted as designers into the dress and hosiery firms, where the course they have received at this College in conjunction with the neighbouring College of Technology enables them to be usefully employed from the start of their careers. Employees from as many as 44 firms were receiving part-time instruction in the College during the session under review, and, in all, 1,020 students employed in various professions and trades (not including teachers) were receiving instruction of a kind that was of use to them in their work. Of these students 150 were released by their employers in order that they might attend classes during the day.

The junior craft school for girls prepares some 70 pupils for employment at the age of fifteen after a two-year course. A few of the most able pupils may secure scholarships to enable them to take senior courses which should lead to a better type of post than they would otherwise obtain. Boys from an adjacent school which trains young people chiefly for industrial occupations attend the College for art and craft instruction, and there are special classes for those among them who will enter such industries as printing and cabinet-making.

The arrangements for the industrial courses are greatly facilitated by the existence of seven Advisory Committees on which leading industrialists serve. Members of these Committees visit the classes at work, advise the Principal from their point of view as employers, and, last but not least, frequently make gifts of equipment or of prize money to the College.

Under a scheme of regional organisation, the College is serving a wide area as a centre for advanced and specialised courses, as well as providing a special year's course in art teaching for a small group of students who wish to qualify for the Art Teacher's Diploma. About

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a quarter of the total number of 1,733 students (not including the schoolboys mentioned above as attending for art and craft subjects) were from outside the county borough.

The full-time senior students, of whom 125 at this College were taking courses leading to professional qualifications, naturally have the opportunity to carry their work to higher standards than other students do, resulting in a favourable influence upon the work related to the various crafts and branches of industry. For example, the study of book illustration and of design for advertising is very closely associated with the College's important printing department, and architecture with the building crafts. Painting and decorating, again, can most usefully be linked up with several other branches of study at such a College, for the skilled designer and the artist have much inspiration to give to this craft, as has the architect and interior designer.

In short, the students, of all types, have an opportunity to work under experts in whatever subjects are to be included in their courses, and the organisation of the three main schools - of Industrial Design, of Architecture and Building, and of Drawing and Painting - is planned with that consideration in view.

Co-operation in the planning of joint courses, enabling certain students to take part of their work in the College of Art and Crafts and part in the College of Technology, has been ensured by the formation of a Board of Studies comprising the two Principals and members of staff from both Colleges. One hundred and thirty-three full-time students of both Colleges were taking such courses, eighty-three of them being dress and hosiery students.

The staff of this large College of Art and Crafts consists of a Principal, 3 heads of departments, 27 full-time and 36 part-time teachers. The part-time teachers are mostly instructors in trade subjects, who are at the same time employed in industry; but some of the expert trade teachers are engaged in a full-time capacity. All the teachers are required, by the terms of their agreement, to practise as well as teach, in order to avoid staleness.

The Principal acts as adviser in the teaching of art and craft subjects in the Primary and Secondary Schools. Members of the College staff visit the schools, and 238 teachers attended the College for instruction in art and craft subjects during the session under review. This was one of the centres where a scheme by which teachers drawn from all over the country attended a full-time course, lasting for one term, was successfully put into force shortly before the war. Twenty-seven attended the latest course. By no means the least important service to the Primary and Secondary Schools consists

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in the circulating among them of collections of first-rate examples of textiles, glass, pottery, embroidery, printing and other crafts and manufactures, as well as a good series of reproductions of a varied range of works of art.

Staff and students play a part in all manner of local artistic activities and in arranging lectures and exhibitions of a kind likely to interest the general public, who naturally turn to the College as a centre of inspiration in artistic matters for the whole community. Another way in which the influence of the College spreads beyond its own walls is through the Branch Evening Art Schools which are organised as a part of the College's activities. The fact that the Principal advises in regard to art instruction in Evening Institutes, many of the teachers in these classes having been trained in the College, forms another useful link. The College may, indeed, be said to create a demand for high standards in design and craftsmanship, in addition to providing the means of satisfying it.

The placing of full-time students in suitable posts on the completion of their courses is, as might be expected, satisfactorily accomplished, and every precaution is taken to ensure that no students are encouraged to remain in the school if there does not appear to be a reasonable chance of their securing suitable employment.

The second example is a School of Art in a smaller industrial area, a borough with some 40,000 inhabitants. Textile and dress manufacture are local staple industries and there are also the usual branches of industry and commerce to which an art school may render useful service.

It is unnecessary to describe the organisation of the school in detail, since it closely follows that of the College of Art and Crafts first described, the chief difference being size rather than scope. Printing, cabinet-making, dress designing and making, and painting and decorating, are all important subjects.

Cordial relations have been established between the school and local industries, both by personal contacts and through the formation of numerous advisory committees; the staff are well qualified by experience on the industrial side, and students are readily placed on leaving the school. During the session under review, 192 of the total of 411 students in the school were attending classes of help to them in their daily work, and 28 of them were released by their employers to attend day classes. The Junior Art Department provided a two-year course for 48 pupils. Looms are available in the school itself and there is also useful co-operation with the Technical College in the

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training of textile designers. School teachers are dealt with in substantial numbers. This Art School invariably plays a prominent part in public life when such undertakings as pageants or processions need to be catered for.

The third school is situated in a residential town of about 50,000 inhabitants. While, as might be expected, the industrial side of the work does not loom so large as in the schools described above, yet 79 of the total of 246 students were attending classes related to their professional or industrial employment. Instruction in printing, painting and decorating, and in display and window-dressing, forms an important part of the curriculum, which also includes cabinet-making. Full-time as well as part-time courses in architecture are provided in conjunction with the Technical College, which provides scientific instruction in building subjects. There are Advisory Committees for architecture, printing, painting and decorating, and display.

There is no Junior Department in this school; but there were 42 full-time students aiming at artistic careers in different branches. The school provides comprehensive courses, in crafts as well as in drawing and painting, and in pictorial and commercial design, including photography, which are suitable for these day students besides enabling evening students to make a study of these subjects. A most important task of this school, as of others so situated, is to act as a centre for exhibitions, lectures and discussions likely to interest the public. The school makes a prominent feature of this part of its work, and the Principal, who acts as "Director of Art" for the county, keeps in touch with a wide range of educational, industrial and other interests in which an art school can usefully participate.

The fourth example is a school, in an ancient market town of 10,000 inhabitants, which bears a responsibility to a large surrounding rural area for which it serves as an educational centre. There is a local textile factory but no other staple industries on which art has a bearing: of the students enrolled in 1938, 75 were receiving instruction in relation to their occupations; among them were 35 employees of the textile factory. There were also 22 teachers attending classes specially organised for them on Saturday mornings. The school has recently supplied three design-room employees to the textile firm, who in their turn have co-operated with the school by carrying out students' designs in their factory.

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Instruction in art and craft was being provided for pupils from two residential schools, for boys and girls respectively, and for selected pupils from local primary and secondary schools.

An important feature is the attention which the Principal of this small school has given to organising social activities such as debates, a sketch club, rambling and camera clubs, as well as excursions to London, and on occasion to the Continent, to see important exhibitions but above all in order to enlarge the outlook of the students, many of whom had never before been outside their fairly remote native county.

This little school can offer a reasonably wide range of craft work, including fabric-printing (of importance to the local firm), painting and decorating, cabinet-making and carving, weaving, dress-crafts and embroidery, and light crafts more particularly suited to the needs of teachers, such as bookbinding. Instruction in general drawing, painting and design is, of course, also available. A very good feature is that the abler students who are ripe for more advanced work are given every encouragement to go forward to a larger school where they will find facilities of a kind that could not be justified at this smaller centre.

THE following are broad general points to be borne in mind in planning new premises:

In the first place, whether or not the art school shares a building with other activities, it is generally desirable that it should be planned vertically rather than that the top floor of a large building should be allotted to it. While the rooms used for such purposes as drawing and painting from life will need north lighting and plenty of it, and may suitably be placed on a top storey, there are other rooms, such as design rooms, which are all the better for some cheerful sunlight. This also applies to the workshops in general, which may be expected to constitute the most important feature of the average school. It will generally be desirable to place on the lower floors subjects involving the use of bulky materials and heavy equipment or machinery.

"Departments", such as those of dress and allied crafts, of modelling and sculpture (which may include pottery and plaster-work), or of book production (including illustration and bookbinding as well as printing), should be as far as possible self-contained.

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Enough storage accommodation provided in the right place is very important. Nearly every room in the average art school may advantageously have its own separate and contiguous store-room.

The provision of space for exhibitions is essential. A special exhibition-room, set apart for the purpose and readily accessible to the public, is desirable. Where such special provision cannot be justified, a useful arrangement is to have folding doors between two rooms enabling the rooms to be thrown into one for holding an exhibition. In any case there should be plenty of room in the entrance hall for showing some attractive examples of the work of the school, and the possibility of a display window on the street front should be considered. It should be borne in mind that in some centres there may be no facilities for exhibitions other than those provided by the art school.

While some workshops, such as those used for painting and decorating and cabinet-making, will generally serve only that specific purpose, yet, especially in the case of the smaller school, it will sometimes be justifiable to equip a single room for more than one use. The room should then be planned so that it may, if necessary, be used for more than one purpose at a time, and the need for constant shifting of equipment should, as far as possible, be eliminated.

The artificial lighting of art schools is an interesting study and many experiments have been made, especially in life rooms, with the object of securing the best results. It is probably generally true that, apart from the special problems presented by the life and antique rooms, all rooms in which practical craft work is done should be provided with individual lights for each student, and that this should also be done in the case of design, illustration, architectural drawing, etc., unless the general lighting of the room is exceptionally bright and is planned to avoid glare and eyestrain due to changing light. While a room should not be filled up with a greater number of lighting fittings than are essential, real efficiency in illumination should be put before all other considerations. In life rooms it has sometimes been found useful to arrange the main source of illumination for the model so that it comes from the same direction as the main supply of daylight. However, in planning art school lighting, specialist advice should always be sought from such a source as the Building Centre and the Electric Light Manufacturers Association Lighting Service Bureau, where full information about the latest systems and apparatus is available.

New schools should always be planned in such a way that extensions can easily be added, and the interior arrangements should as far as possible permit of the rooms being altered in size to meet new and

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unforeseen needs; if possible, equipment should not be permanently fixed. The importance of this is evident when we realise the extent to which art school plans to-day differ from the plans of thirty years ago, especially in the importance now given to workshop accommodation. Indeed, it has often come about that although the amount of space available in an old building is sufficient, the character of the accommodation is wholly unsuitable for modern requirements.

While a special room should be set aside as a library where students may occasionally not only read but work from plates, etc., it is what the library contains rather than the way in which it is housed which will count for most. In addition to books, there should be current magazines; and collections of plates and reproductions, as well as lantern slides, suitably indexed. Where it is not possible to allocate a special room for the library, books should be kept in some place where students can see the titles on the backs, so that they know what is available; it will often be found that it is in any case useful for certain books which are in constant use to be stored in the rooms where the subjects with which they deal are taught.

For art schools serving as centres it is not possible, even if it were desirable, to lay down a rigid formula relating the schedule of accommodation to the size of the population served. There are two reasons for this. In the first place, the number of students forthcoming is likely to vary, at any rate to some extent, according to the nature of the district; in the second place, the type of provision needed will depend on the kind of work required in the locality. For, example, the presence of manufacturing or commercial undertakings on which art has a bearing will affect both the numbers to be provided for and the kind of provision needed. Moreover, the extent to which different kinds of work are likely to be required will govern the extent to which it may be justifiable to provide single-purpose rooms, or rooms which serve more than one purpose. For instance, unless practical work in window display is to be done on all or most evenings, it will make for economy to provide facilities for display in a part of a room used on other evenings for other purposes, and to make use of the exhibition hall, if one is available, for some of the practical work in setting up displays. Modelling and carving, or modelling and pottery, may in the same way sometimes be combined, especially if the same teacher is likely to be responsible for both subjects. Such crafts as dress design and embroidery may also lend themselves to similar treatment.

In the following Schedule, the areas suggested for the rooms are such as would contain the number of students who can con-

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veniently be dealt with at one time. At some large centres it may, of course, be more economical to provide both studio and workshop accommodation on a scale which will allow for a very large number of students to be dealt with in certain rooms, and some rooms may need to be duplicated.

The storage needed will, of course, vary with the type of work, e.g. a wood store must be long enough as well as big enough, and the display room will need an extra large store; but 150 square feet per studio or workshop should give a fair average.

Twenty-five feet has generally been proved a satisfactory figure to take for the width of studios and workshops, and the planning of accommodation is facilitated by the adoption of a standard width. It may, however, be convenient to arrange for certain rooms, e.g. a painting and decorating workshop, to be wider, and such rooms may often be placed at the end of a wing where corridor space will not be needed and the whole width of the building will be available. If the corridors are 10 feet wide to allow for lockers big enough to take imperial size drawing-boards, it will then be possible, for example, to plan a spacious room 35 feet square at the end of a wing.

In deciding what height to give to a room which will not be top lit, the need for daylight lighting good enough to illuminate properly the side of the room farthest from the windows should be borne in mind.

The following schedule should not be considered exhaustive where it relates to the probable requirements of a large school, since it is very likely that at certain centres special work of a kind not generally required will be called for.

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(Will vary according to the nature of the machinery required and may need to be larger, but no room under this size should be provided for this purpose in the first instance.)

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A greenhouse, which may suitably be situated next to the General Drawing or Design Studios, is a very useful - indeed, almost an essential - part of the provision if the drawing and painting of plants is to be successfully tackled.

The desirability of making the best possible use of any available garden space will scarcely need to be stressed.

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No. 3. Youth's Opportunity: Further Education in County Colleges (1946). 2s. (2s. 1½d.)

No. 4. Building Crafts: Education for Industry and Commerce (1945). 1s. (1s. 1½d.)

No, 7. Entrants to the Mining Industry: Education for Industry and Commerce (1947). 6d. (7½d.)

No. 8. Further Education (1947). 3s. 6d. (3s. 9d.)

No. 9. The New Secondary Education (1947). 2s. 6d. (2s. 8d.)

No. 11. Organised Camping (2nd edition, 1951). 1s. 3d. (1s. 4½d.)

No. 12. UNESCO and a World Society (1948). 1s. (1s. 1½d.)

No. 13. Safety Precautions in Schools (1948). 9d. (10½d.)

No. 14. Story of a School: A Headmaster's Experiences with Children Aged Seven to Eleven (1949). 1s. (1s. 1½d.)

No. 16. Citizens Growing Up: At Home, in School and After (1949). 1s. (1s. 1½d.)

No. 17. Challenge and Response: An Account of the Emergency Scheme for the Training of Teachers (1950). 4s. (4s. 3d.)

No. 18. Reading Ability: Some Suggestions for Helping the Backward (1950). 2s. (2s. 1½d.)

No. 19. The Road to the Sixth Form: Some Suggestions on the Curriculum of the Grammar School (1951). 1s. 3d. (1s. 4½d.)

No. 20. School Broadcasts: A Sample Study from the Listeners' End (1952). 1s. 6d. (1s. 7½d.)

No. 21. The School Library (1952). 2s. (2s. 1½d.)

No. 22. Metalwork in Secondary Schools (1952). 3s. 6d. (3s. 7½d.)

No. 23. Teaching History (1952). 3s. 6d. (3s. 8d.)

No. 24. Moving and Growing. (Physical Education in the Primary School, Part I) (1952). 6s. (6s. 4d.)

No. 25. Planning the Programme (Physical Education in the Primary School, Part II) (1953). 6s. (6s. 5d.)

No. 26. Language: Some Suggestions for Teachers and others in Primary and Secondary Schools, and in Further Education. (1954). 3s. 6d. (3s. 8d.)

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