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Section F: Preparation for working life
1. Under this section were grouped ten questions on the development of curricula aimed at preparing pupils for adult and working life; on careers education; on industrial experience for pupils and teachers; and on the promotion of links between schools and further education colleges, and between schools and industry.
2. Many authorities see preparation for adult life as a task permeating most of the 'traditional' curriculum subjects (F1); a minority encourage distinct 'general studies' courses with the same objective in mind. In-service training and the role of the advisory service feature less prominently here than elsewhere, although advisers make a particular contribution in some aspects of curriculum development (F2).
3. Careers education receives variable treatment. Most authorities advise their schools to provide careers education in the third, fourth and fifth secondary years, though fewer report using the careers and advisory services as sources of help to teachers (F3). One-third recommend secondary schools to appoint a careers teacher, but fewer give guidance on his status and role, and fewer still have designated an adviser with special responsibility for careers education (F4).
4. Questions F5 and F6 dealt respectively with work experience for pupils and industrial experience for teachers. Most authorities leave it to individual schools to make their own arrangements for work experience; under half give schools written guidance, although others rely on the careers service to help individual schools with arrangements. Work observation appears to be less common than work experience. On the other hand the majority of authorities report arrangements under various schemes to offer teachers some experience of industry, through secondments, visits and exchanges; and there is some evidence of expansion in this area.
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5. A wide variety of approaches to the promotion of links between schools and further education colleges emerges from the responses to questions F7 and F9. The great majority of authorities generally encourage linked courses between schools and colleges in their areas, but in most cases the planning of these is left to the institutions themselves and there are comparatively few attempts to establish permanent machinery for coordination. A similar picture is painted by the replies covering coordination arrangements for curricular provision for the 16-19 age group as a whole: a minority of authorities report existing formal machinery or the encouragement of informal cooperation, although a number have 16-19 provision as a whole under review and there are signs that new measures are at an early stage of development.
6. Much emphasis is placed, in the replies to F8 and FlO, on the activities of the careers and advisory services in promoting links between schools and local employers and trades unions, to further mutual understanding of needs and opportunities and of the implications for curricular provision. Systematic liaison arrangements appear however to be rare, and reliance is placed largely on a range of informal channels of contact.
7. A particular feature of the responses to this section is the widespread view that the varied activities described offer complementary ways of promoting preparation for adult and working life.
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F1. What steps have the authority taken to help schools promote the development in their pupils of a basic understanding of contemporary economic, social and political life: and what attention is given to the roles of industry, commerce and the trades unions in our society?
1. Many authorities explained that important aspects of provision in this field were more fully treated elsewhere in their response to section F, particularly the role of the careers service and careers teachers (F4), work experience schemes (F5), industrial experience schemes for teachers (F6) and liaison between schools and industry (FS). While touching on these as appropriate, the summary of responses to the present question is concerned principally with curricular provision for the development of pupils' understanding of economic, social and political life, and with the support provided to schools working in this field.
2. Three-fifths of the authorities said that the issues underlying this question could largely be incorporated into more or less 'traditional' subjects of the secondary curriculum. Many subjects were specified in this connection, notably history, geography, economics, commercial studies, social studies, moral education and home economics. Among the examples described by authorities were history courses examining the origins and development of trade unionism, geography courses which considered the structure of a particular local industry, and, in one authority, home economics courses which covered such aspects of consumer protection as trades descriptions and weights and measures. Few replies indicated the extent to which approaches of the kind mentioned above were reflected in practice in schools, although some described reports prepared by working parties in order to suggest how teachers might give a fuller understanding of various aspects of contemporary life within the confines of individual subject areas.
3. A quarter of the responses (among them some of those mentioned. above) referred to encouragement for 'general studies' courses of various types which had been specifically designed to cover all or part of the area included in the question. Many CSE mode 3 courses of this type were listed, and one authority said that 'secondary schools were recommended to include in their fourth year options schemes the syllabus "British Industrial Society", which was available either as an O level or a CSE. In some schools this syllabus was used as part of the "core" element of fourth and fifth year courses'. Another authority stated that the possibility of involving industrialists in the construction of CSE mode 3 syllabuses was being actively explored. Other courses, not linked with examinations, were also described,
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particularly for senior pupils. For example, one authority referred to 'a large programme of sixth form introduction to the interdependence between the making of wealth and the public use of wealth', which was about to start with the assistance of the Industrial Society. Some courses were said to be even wider in scope; one authority reported that in some schools a typical syllabus for broad programmes of social education or social, personal and careers education could include 'such topics as family, friendships, relationships, responsibilities to others, the community, budgeting, poverty, the role of politics in social change and the role and purpose of trades unions'.
4. Several authorities made particular mention of political education, usually expressing an awareness of the need for caution in introducing this as a separate subject, and reporting teachers' anxiety to avoid possible charges of political bias. However, some felt that there were 'political elements in a number of syllabuses (for example in history) and in studies and visits concerning local government and civic affairs'. One authority taking·this view described a CSE mode 3 course in European studies at one of its schools; the aims of this course included 'enabling students to understand the importance and significance of economic and political institutions in Western and Eastern Europe and to comprehend the basic political philosophies which have influenced European parties and types of government'; it also concerned itself with 'industry and resources, working conditions, trades unions, incomes and standards of living in Europe'.
5. Rather under one-third of the authorities mentioned that they participated in, or encouraged schools to participate in, national schemes and projects. Understanding British Industry and ProjectTrident were frequently referred to (see question F5 and F6), and several authorities said that they considered the Challenge of Industry conferences for sixth formers, together with other initiatives of the Industrial Society, to be especially valuable. Several Schools Council projects were also mentioned: Geography for the Young School Leaver, History 13-16, the Humanities Curriculum Project, and the Schools Council Industry Project (SCIP). One authority, which was one of the five areas in which SCIP was being developed, said that 'the pilot work and materials emerging from this project would be disseminated throughout the authority and might well offer a model of ways in which the school curriculum could embody awareness of the role and importance of industrial society'.
6. Less than one-tenth of the responses indicated that the authority had designated an adviser with particular responsibility for all or part of the area
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covered by this question, and these advisers generally had other responsibilities in a related subject area (for example, the humanities, youth and community work, careers education). Only one authority reported that it had appointed an adviser for political education. Careers officers were also said by one-sixth of authorities to help teachers plan appropriate courses in this area, and in particular to offer valuable guidance on courses related to industry (see question F2). Several authorities observed that it was important for teachers to have a thorough understanding of the roles of industry, commerce and trades unions if they were to make a significant contribution to their pupils' knowledge of these topics, and many authorities commented that they made opportunities for industrial experience available to teachers (see question F6).
7. In-service training related to the issues raised by this question was mentioned in two-fifths of the replies, whether as a support to curricular initiatives of the type described in paragraph 3 above, or in the form of suggestions for widening the scope of various subjects to include a broader consideration of certain features of contemporary life. One-sixth of the authorities referred to working parties which were currently examining this area, most commonly with a view to strengthening the links between schools and industry, but sometimes in order to produce classroom materials; a similar number described conferences of teachers, industrialists and trades unionists which had offered an opportunity for discussion of some of the curricular issues involved (see question FS). Over a quarter of the authorities reported that resource materials or discussion papers had been produced to support work on various aspects of contemporary life, such as politics or economics. A quarter said that they encouraged schools to invite employers and trades unionists to talk about their work and to answer pupils' questions in an attempt to provide a background to the classroom study of contemporary issues.
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F2. What steps have the authority taken to help schools design curricula which their pupils will see to be relevant to their career aspirations and prospects?
1. Several authorities stressed in their replies, although for differing reasons, that the relevance of curricula should not be interpreted in too narrow a sense. Thus one authority remarked that 'it does not follow that curriculum material which is operationally relevant and which is seen by pupils to be relevant will be so regarded by many parents and employers: and went on to express its concern that 'the educational value of many secondary subjects should receive due emphasis, whether or not those subjects are in high demand from employers'. Another authority felt that whether a curriculum was seen by pupils to be relevant to their career aspirations and prospects 'could be a poor criterion and one which might distort the curriculum towards an undue concern with apparently marketable skills'. The same authority went on to state its belief, echoed in other responses, that 'each individual school must develop its own approach to making the curriculum appear and be relevant to its pupils, and must do so in response to the interests and abilities of each individual and, often, to the potential employment situation for those pupils; ... it is in the liaison between schools and employers that an authority can best assist this process'.
2. It was important, in the view of some authorities, to look at the curriculum as a whole when assessing its relevance to pupils' future needs, and to avoid undue emphasis on a few elements. Others considered that to a large extent the balance and relevance of curricula were determined by factors not wholly within the control of individual schools, such as the requirements of employers and 'the examination system and the responsiveness of examining boards to initiatives of schools in promoting alternative syllabuses and modes of examination'. Many responses consequently attached particular importance to the guidance offered to pupils in their third year, when they were choosing the options they would follow in subsequent years, and referred to the assistance of advisers and careers officers at this stage (see paragraphs 5 and 6 below).
3. Although some authorities voiced their conviction of a need for caution over the provision of courses with a vocational content for pupils under the age of sixteen, almost one-third of the replies contained statements that industrially-oriented courses were encouraged in schools. For example, one authority said that 'courses are organised in many schools, particularly in relation to the less able pupils, which are very directly vocational. The
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vocational interest is used as the medium for the teaching of other basic subjects - thus typing is used to create motivation and interest in English, whilst more technical subjects, like motor-vehicle engineering, provide motivation for the study of physics. Courses in child-care, seamanship and printing have created employment opportunities for pupils who might not have gained these openings purely on academic ability'. Other responses revealed a similar awareness of the limited employment prospects of many non-examination pupils, and of the importance of devising suitable courses for them. A handful of authorities made particular mention of the work of special schools in preparing their pupils (often through work experience schemes - see also question F5) for subsequent employment.
4. Some replies stressed the importance of relevance in certain areas of the curriculum: for example, one authority said that it encouraged an emphasis on the technological applications of science, and a number of authorities said that CSE mode 3 courses were often seen by pupils to have a direct relevance to their future careers. One described the work which had been carried out in devising Certificate of Extended Education syllabuses under the headings of management, law, economics and finance; a more broadly based syllabus entitled 'People, Industry and Production' was now under consideration, with a view to possible use and adaptation 'as a core experience for various age-groups and abilities'. Several references were also made to the value of linked courses as a means of introducing pupils to the applications of school subjects (see question F7).
5. Over two-thirds of the authorities said that help with the design of curricula relevant to pupils' careers was offered to schools by the advisory service, the careers service or both. Advisers generally worked with senior teachers in planning overall curricula and helped subject teachers to review the relevance of their courses, both by discussing their work within the school and by organising in-service courses which considered these topics. For example, one authority referred to a short course arranged by the modern language adviser 'on orienting language teaching in schools towards business careers'. Another authority reported that: 'a series of "Application in Industry Courses" has been held for various subject teachers so that they see at first hand the use of their particular subject in industry. Each course starts with a discussion between teachers and a number of employers, followed by visits to a variety of employers' premises, and a session in the relevant subject department at the Technical College.' Almost half the responses mentioned in-service training of some kind.
6. The assistance provided by careers officers was usually said to relate closely to the work of careers teachers within the school, in respect of
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courses of careers education, arrangements for work experience and the counselling of individual pupils (see questions F4 and F5). Careers officers also helped with some in-service courses, and were reported in a few cases to have prepared literature to assist pupils and teachers in various ways: one authority, for example, said that the careers service had 'produced a booklet indicating the vocational significance of the educational choices which young people make'.
7. Advisers and/or careers officers participated in the seminars or working parties of teachers which were reported in over one-fifth of the responses to be currently considering aspects of the curriculum in relation to pupils' employment prospects. Sometimes local careers associations were also said to be studying this field. Similar initiatives involving liaison with employers (and, less frequently, trades unions) were mentioned by over a quarter of the authorities, and are dealt with more fully under question F8. Some of these education-industry groups were engaged on the production of materials for use in the classroom: thus in one authority a pilot scheme of school-industry liaison aimed 'to provide a systematic body of material to enrich the teaching of English, mathematics, science and craft in secondary schools, suitable for pupils aged about 13, to enable them to appreciate the relevance of these subjects to modern industrial society before they are required to choose specialist subjects'.
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F3. What guidance do the authority offer schools on the age at which children should begin careers education and on the duration of such courses?
1. Over two-thirds of the authorities reported that they advised secondary schools to begin careers education in the third year and to continue this at least until the end of the fifth year; a few of these authorities, however, said that some of their schools did not in fact commence careers work until the fourth year. Most of the remaining authorities stated that, although their advisers and careers officers offered assistance to schools as necessary, general guidance in this matter was not provided; within this group some said that in practice schools in their area commenced careers education in the third year, while others reported that many schools did not begin careers work until the fourth year. In a few responses careers education was said to be generally encouraged from the first year of secondary schooling, through relevant subjects. About one-third of the replies indicated that schools were encouraged to continue careers work into the sixth form.
2. Under one-sixth of the answers to this question mentioned that schools were advised to timetable careers work, and some of these said that not all schools complied with this advice. One of the authorities referring to its policy in this area stated that its schools were 'recommended to aim for a minimum of one period a week through the third, fourth and fifth years', but added that it was generally felt by experienced careers teachers that a system of block timetabling for careers periods was more satisfactory, as it enabled 'advantage to be taken of visits and other extra-mural activities, work experience to be better prepared and followed up and projects [to be] undertaken on local industries'.
3. Several responses described the way in which careers work was designed to meet the needs of particular age groups. The pattern was generally said to begin with relatively informal guidance in the third year, related particularly to the careers implications of options. Individual counselling by careers officers was often introduced in the fourth year, and played a more important role in the fifth year; careers education during these two years was sometimes described as being more structured, including features such as work experience (see question F5). There appeared to be less encouragement of general careers education in the sixth form, where the emphasis was said to be on specific guidance for individual pupils. A number of authorities reported that the Schools Council's Careers Education and Guidance Project provided a valuable structure for programmes of careers education, and one such authority described successive phases of careers education in the following manner:
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'the emphasis at third year stage is on self-awareness and the creation of opportunities for pupils to practise decision-making. At fourth year stage, pupils are helped to understand how work affects their lives in school and how it could affect them as workers. The fifth year stage focuses upon ways of helping pupils with the problems of transition from school to work. The sixth helps with the task of choosing between the various alternatives in education and work.'
4. A few authorities pointed out that subjects other than specific careers education could be helpful in encouraging pupils to think about their future work, and one authority saw advantage in including careers teaching as an integral part of a social studies or social education programme, in that this made it possible 'to build up a group of teachers interested in careers work, thus eliminating the unfortunate but traditional isolation of the careers teacher'. Several responses indicated that 'in many cases the more academic groups are given less direct teaching in this area than other pupils'.
5. One-third of the authorities specifically referred to the advice offered to schools by the careers service on the careers programmes suited to the varying needs of pupils. Much of this guidance was conveyed during careers officers' regular visits to schools (for further details of this role see question F4); the careers service was also said to be involved in many of the in-service training courses which one-tenth of the authorities reported in connection with this question. One-eighth of the replies referred to the role of advisers in offering guidance in this area. Statements of policy or guideline documents on careers matters were mentioned by one-fifth of the authorities as one of the means adopted in order to help schools plan suitable programmes of careers education; many of these documents were illustrated by examples of local practice. In a few replies seminars or meetings, often arranged under the auspices of the local careers association (see question F4), were also mentioned as another way of informing careers teachers about successful initiatives.
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F4. What guidance do the authority offer schools on the role and appointment of careers teachers and links with the careers service?
1. The nature of the guidance offered to schools over the appointment of careers teachers appeared to vary considerably: thus one authority had allocated an additional member of staff to each secondary school for careers work, while another had issued a policy statement declaring that 'each school should designate, as far as practicable, at least two members of the teaching staff as careers teachers (so far as is possible one of each sex in mixed schools)'. Over one-third of the authorities specifically reported that all secondary schools were recommended to appoint (or had without specific recommendation appointed) a careers teacher. However, few of these authorities stated that such appointments entailed full-time careers work: as one reply said, 'they vary considerably in the amount of time allowed for the careers programme and how far responsibility for careers is combined with other major responsibilities'. A few others indicated that in some schools there was no one teacher with overall responsibility for careers work. A tenth of all authorities maintained that decisions on the appointment of careers teachers were primarily the responsibility of the governing body and head teacher. One authority stated that it had 'no standard policy concerning grading, job description, time allowed for careers education teaching and administration', and that teachers filling these posts were 'not required to have any specific qualifications or training for careers work'.
2. Several authorities said that they made recommendations about the status of appointment appropriate for a careers teacher. Thus one considered that 'careers teachers ("co-ordinators") should have the status of a head of a major department', and 'written advice had been given to schools on this point [and] meetings had taken place with heads to emphasise it'. In another authority careers teachers usually held 'a senior position at scale 3 level or above'. The reason generally given for the importance attached to the status of the careers teacher was that it was essential that he or she should be in a position to co-ordinate work related to careers, and to encourage relevant curriculum development, in other departments of the school. For similar reasons, many authorities also said that careers teachers should have had considerable experience of general teaching, and one authority referred to a working party on careers education which was currently 'identifying the experience and qualifications that should be associated with an occupant of a careers teacher post'.
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3. According to a quarter of the responses, advisers offered guidance to governing bodies interviewing applicants for careers teacher posts; one-tenth ascribed a similar function to the careers service. One purpose was to clarify the role of careers teacher, both for the members of the governing body and for the applicant; for example, one authority reported that its careers guidance inspector, attending such interviews, emphasised that the post of careers teacher was an educational position 'with a large element of classroom teaching, and not purely pastoral or organisational, as is sometimes assumed'.
4. Over a quarter of the authorities said that they provided guidelines for schools on the role of the careers teacher; others implied that specific guidance was given, though not necessarily in written form (through the advisory service, for example). Some authorities contrasted the role of the careers teacher with that of the careers officer, and two responses are quoted below to illustrate the different emphases (in relation to aspects such as vocational guidance and links with employers) within broadly similar descriptions of these roles which were typical of replies detailing the responsibilities of the two jobs.
5. One authority stated: 'it is recommended to heads that the role of the careers teacher should include the following:
a. the organisation and development of careers work in the school;
b. planning and teaching a careers education course;
c. liaising with the careers service and other appropriate agencies;
d. responsibility for links with industry, commerce, trades unions and further/higher education establishments;
e. making arrangements within the school for pupils to undertake work experience and work observation;
f. involvement in curriculum development within the school (with particular reference to its vocational implication).
The guidance offered to schools on their links with the careers service is that:
a. the careers service has a major responsibility for vocational guidance and the placement of pupils in employment, and will liaise with careers teachers about pupils requiring placement;
b. careers officers will assist careers teachers by taking part in group talks/discussions with pupils at appropriate points within the careers education courses and provide individual vocational guidance for pupils as and when necessary from the fourth year onwards;
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c. careers officers are available to assist schools to establish links with industry and commerce.'
6. In contrast, another authority's view was that while 'the primary role of the careers teacher is to teach those aspects of social and personal education which are particularly relevant to future career or job choice', careers teachers also had responsibility for interviewing individual pupils to monitor their progress in deciding on their futures, and for referring to the careers officer cases 'where individual choice presents a problem', A further role of the careers teacher was 'to provide a system of access to careers information for pupils throughout the school'. The authority went on to describe the relationship between school and careers service as follows:
"The link with the careers service is promoted as a resource external to the school which can make a vital contribution on the school's programme in two main areas:-
(i) All activities in which a number of schools will have a common interest and where an external agency can offer co-ordination and economy. For example: the organisation of area based events (such as conventions and exhibitions), links with employer organisations, the supply of careers literature, in-service training for careers teachers, curriculum development and placing in employment.
(ii) Individual guidance in some depth for pupils experiencing difficulty with individual decision making.'
7. As indicated above and in a number of other replies, the careers service was expected to provide substantial support to careers teachers. Although a few authorities said that links between the careers service and schools were largely informal, almost one-third of the responses contained references to regular meetings between careers teachers and careers officers. Local careers associations (which often included representatives of industry and specialist subject teachers in their membership) were often said to provide a forum for the discussion of matters of common interest. Over one-fifth of the authorities specifically mentioned the regular visits of careers officers to secondary schools (in some cases specified as occurring on one or two days a week), which enabled the careers service to offer informal advice to careers teachers on, for example, the design of careers programmes (see questions F2 and F3). A few authorities stated that the careers service acted 'as a resource agency to supplement a school's own careers education and information resources'.
8. The careers service and/or careers associations were often said to be closely involved in in-service training for careers teachers, referred to by
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over two-fifths of the authorities. These courses were generally organised by the authority itself or by a group of neighbouring authorities, but sometimes included longer term secondments to external institutions. They offered careers teachers an opportunity to consider the nature of their role, as well as to learn specific skills (in connection especially with counselling) and to increase their understanding of the work of particular industries. Visits to industrial premises, which were also regarded as promoting such understanding, are referred to in greater detail under question F6.
9. A number of authorities stated that they had appointed an adviser for careers education; such a post usually carried responsibility for coordinating in-service training for careers teachers and for liaison between schools and the careers service. One of these authorities reported additional support through the secondment each year of an experienced careers teacher to advise newly-appointed careers teachers on materials and methods.
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F5. What steps have the authority taken to promote the development of work experience and work observation where appropriate in relation to school courses, and the use of work experience and work observation to illustrate the nature and needs of an industrial society?
1. Some authorities took the view that 'most schools would see work experience as directed primarily towards assisting the transition to work and choice of career and thus related most closely to courses in careers education'; others, however, emphasised the more general educative function of work experience as a means of increasing pupils' understanding and awareness of the nature of working life. A number of the latter authorities said that they advised schools that work experience should form an integral . part of the normal curriculum for older pupils, and that it could be used to illuminate subjects such as science and social studies as well as careers education.
2. Over one-fifth of the responses described a scheme of work experience which was co-ordinated centrally, usually by the careers service, and operated in schools across the authority's area. In contrast, two-thirds of the authorities indicated that they did not co-ordinate schemes but' left schools to make individual arrangements for their pupils' work experience, subject to approval by the authority, who often provided detailed guidance. Indeed, two-fifths of the responses referred to documents which had been issued to schools in order to assist them in the organisation of work experience. These documents ranged from factual material such as circulars informing head teachers about the legal and insurance aspects of work experience, and lists (compiled by the careers service) of employers willing to co-operate over the provision of places for work experience, to comprehensive guidelines on the incorporation of work experience into a programme of careers education, or into the curriculum generally.
3. Several replies stressed the importance attached to a structured programme in connection with work experience. For almost one-fifth of the authorities, such a programme was developed through co-operation-or proposed co-operation - with Project Trident; but other ways of encouraging schools to make work experience part of a coherent educational programme were also described. For example, one authority with a fairly centralised system of work experience reported that participating schools had 'to operate arrangements which involve at least three-periods of contrasting experience, each lasting a week with strong classroom work in preparation and follow up'. Another authority gave details of the planning
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of work experience programmes: 'schemes should include provision within the school curriculum for preparation before the pupils take part in work experience and for following up and discussing the experience gained. It is the intention also that employers should be made fully aware of the aims of the scheme and should be invited to plan their part in co-operation with the schools. The authority regards it as important that the schools should supervise the progress of pupils while they are out of school, by making arrangements for teachers to visit the places where they are working and to keep in touch with the individuals in the organisations who are co-operating in the scheme. In all of this the careers service of the authority has an important part to play both in advising schools and in linking up with employers.'
4. Over half the authorities referred to the assistance offered to schools by the careers service (or, in some cases, by advisers) in the planning and organisation of work experience, and especially in making contact with suitable employers. A few responses mentioned the appointment of an officer with overall responsibility for co-ordination of this kind; and a handful said that in-service training presented an opportunity to encourage work experience and to provide information about the ways in which it had been successfully approached.
5. Many authorities indicated that only a proportion of the secondary schools in their area participated in work experience schemes, although the number of pupils involved was generally not given. In most cases it was reported that 'schools have tended to offer work experience much more to pupils of lower academic ability who do not have heavy examination commitments'. Several authorities said that particular efforts had been made to arrange work experience for pupils at special schools. One response did, however, indicate that it was often difficult to find industrial placements for the less able pupils, and another had created an industrial training unit for ESN(M) pupils and others 'likely to stumble at the step from school to industry'. Its aim was 'not to provide vocational training, but to accustom children to the demands of industry, to inculcate acceptable working habits and attitudes and to allow an assessment to be made of areas of strength and weakness with regard to successful placement'.
6. Although several authorities said that there had been a considerable expansion of work experience schemes in their area in recent years, and particularly since the passing of the Education (Work Experience) Act 1973 and the issue of DES Circular 7/74 (Welsh Office Circular 135/74), such observations were balanced by statements in other responses suggesting
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that the amount of work experience had not increased, and .in some cases had declined. Varied explanations were offered: in some rural authorities there was said to be insufficient industry to support a large programme of work experience, while in some urban authorities the general lack of employment opportunities had repercussions for such programmes. While recognising the pressures on firms' time, a few authorities said that they had found it difficult to persuade employers to offer work experience placements (although others reported that they had not encountered this difficulty). A number of authorities alluded to problems with insurance cover for pupils involved in industrial placements; some had at least partially overcome these by themselves meeting the cost of personal accident insurance. Similarly, while one authority said that the growth of work experience programmes had been limited by its requirement that additional costs incurred should be met by pupils or from normal capitation, other authorities met costs such as travelling expenses from central funds. One of the most intractable problems was said to be that of finding sufficient staff time to ensure that schemes were well-planned and structured, Although few went so far as the authority which maintained that 'careers teachers in schools seldom have the time or the resources to be involved in work experience schemes', it was apparent that the amount of time required for thorough preparation, administration and follow-up of work experience was a major constraint.
7. Work observation was mentioned by one-third of the authorities. Comparatively few gave details of its organisation, although some responses described work observation as an integral part of most schools' programmes of careers education for all pupils. It appeared that in most cases visits were arranged on the initiative of individual schools, but a few authorities stated that programmes were co-ordinated by the careers service, and stressed the importance of adequate preparation and follow-up. Pupils taking GCE or CSE examinations were said to be more likely to be offered short periods of work observation rather than work experience as such; these often took place during the Easter vacation in the pupils' fifth year, One authority gave details of an annual one-week residential 'work appreciation' course for about 50 sixth formers: 'the pupils spend the week studying a particular industry or organisation in a structured programme drawn up by the employers. Such study is linked to discussion groups at which careers officers and careers teachers act as tutors',
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F6. What arrangements do the authority have to enable teachers to obtain personal experience and wider understanding of industry?
1. The attachment of teachers to firms for varying periods was the most commonly reported means of helping them to gain experience and understanding of industry. Half of the replies mentioned some degree of participation in the Confederation of British Industry's 'Introduction to Industry' schemes for teachers, or similar local arrangements. Teachers were attached for periods of up to three weeks, usually to a local firm, in order to build up a picture of the working environment which school leavers would enter, to assess the educational attainments and skills which employers sought in new entrants, and more generally to foster better understanding and communication between schools and industry. Many authorities stressed that these schemes were not restricted to teachers with specific responsibilities for careers education, but were available to all interested staff; others saw particular value in including heads or other senior teachers. The schemes were not confined to manufacturing industry: several authorities listed such diverse sectors as banking, insurance, hotel and catering, mail-order, wholesale grocery distribution, retailing, and printing. Almost one-tenth of the replies also mentioned arrangements for disseminating throughout the schools the experiences of the teachers concerned, frequently by means of widely-circulated written reports, but sometimes including, for example, panel discussions at teachers' centres as part of in-service training courses, or the 'evaluation meeting' described by one authority where 'teachers, industrialists and representatives of [the authority] discuss the achievements of the scheme'.
2. Some authorities expressed reservations about such schemes: in the words of one, 'the period of industrial experience is too short to allow a teacher to gain anything but a superficial understanding of industry. On the other hand, the release of a key teacher for a fortnight can seriously disrupt the life of a school [while] a longer period would pose still greater difficulties for schools in releasing teachers, and probably also for firms in finding an active role for the teachers'. Difficulties in providing temporary replacements for such teachers were cited in a number of replies, and one referred to problems in releasing teachers' at a time convenient to [industrial] employers'; on the other hand, a few authorities mentioned special arrangements for supply teachers to cover such absences.
3. Two-fifths of the replies described other arrangements for teachers to spend a period in industry. Among those, the teacher fellowships recently
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introduced by the Institutions of Electrical and 'of Mechanical Engineers were mentioned by about a dozen authorities, most of whom planned to release one or two teachers per annum for this purpose. As one authority said, these fellowships allowed 'teachers to spend a term on secondment working with a team of engineers on an engineering project. A grant is made to the teacher's school to assist specific curriculum development after the completion of the fellowship'. A handful of replies referred to developing collaboration with the Understanding British Industry project: in one case this involved a scheme whereby 'five teachers are to be seconded to local firms for a year. This project is largely financed by the firms themselves who will make a major contribution to the cost of the replacement teachers'. Elsewhere, local arrangements were made with major industries, as in the authority reporting that 'companies from the chemical and allied fields have been encouraged to invite science teachers to spend periods with them, to enable the teachers to gain knowledge of the new techniques and equipment currently in use in industry'.
4. Many of the replies recorded in the preceding paragraphs indicated the numbers of teachers involved, particularly in the CBI scheme. These varied considerably. In some cases the numbers were very small, as in the authority reporting that 'only a handful of teachers have availed themselves of the opportunity' to participate in the CBI scheme. More commonly, figures in a range from ten to thirty teachers per annum were quoted. A few replies mentioned numbers in the region of fifty in the current year, and one said that in 1977 the CBI scheme was unable to accommodate the demand from almost one hundred teachers. Two authorities referred to substantial numbers participating in locally-devised schemes: two hundred in the current year in one case, and over 1,100 since 1966 in the other. A few indicated a recent decline in local demand; these were, however, balanced by others reporting an actual or expected growth. Many replies mentioned reciprocal arrangements. whereby staff of industrial firms spent periods in the schools, in order to observe at first hand the teaching methods used and the courses being followed by pupils (see also questions F8 and F10).
5. Arrangements for teachers to make shorter visits to local firms featured in a quarter of the replies. One authority organising ad hoc one-or two-day visits in the summer term described a system at teacher groups, arranged on a subject basis, to identify specific areas of enquiry in advance of the visits; another mentioned the role of mathematics/industry working parties in organising visits for mathematics teachers. A quarter of the authorities referred to other forms of school/industry liaison, not necessarily
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involving visits to firms. For example, in one authority working groups of teachers and employers, established on a subject basis, were engaged in curriculum development exercises; in another speakers from industrial training boards were invited to address meetings of careers teachers; in a third trade union representatives spoke to groups of teachers and pupils; and in a fourth collaboration with the British Institute of Management had led to direct links between head teachers of a dozen schools and senior managers of a dozen local firms. One-eighth of the replies mentioned courses or conferences bringing together representatives of industry and schools; in. some cases these were linked with teacher in-service training arrangements. Several authorities referred to links developed through Science and Technology Regional Organisations (SATRO), whose activities included arranging teachers' visits to firms, producing a directory of companies willing to assist schools with resource materials, and maintaining a loan collection of teaching packs about industry. The role of local Rotary Clubs in fostering liaison was cited in more than one reply.
6. The part played by the careers service and by local careers teacher associations again featured in many replies. A few authorities mentioned in this respect that they had designated an officer or a member of the advisory team with particular responsibility for co-ordination in these fields.
7. A few authorities, while mentioning some of the arrangements described above, noted in their replies to this or other questions in section F that a number of school teachers in their areas possessed previous experience of working in industry. In one, for instance, recent appointments had included 'a civil engineer to teach mathematics, and a mechanical engineer to teach technical studies'. While there were variations reported in the extent to which use was made of teachers' backgrounds in other employment, another authority, for example, remarked that most of its schools were 'in a position to draw on a pool of industrial and commercial experience to support curriculum work'.
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F7. What steps have the local authority taken to promote the development of links between schools and colleges of further education either to encourage the establishment of linked courses where suitable or to facilitate transfer to further education courses after school?
1. Three-quarters of the authorities said that they encouraged or supported linked courses in at least part of their area, although comparatively few indicated that they provided specific guidance about the organisation of such courses. Some authorities had established special posts, within their administrative or advisory staff, carrying responsibility for liaison over linked courses; or had distributed documents such as the regular bulletin issued by one authority which gave 'information about linked courses available and information about how to establish further links.' Another authority had set up a linked course committee to consider 'applications for courses in order to monitor and develop them as seemed desirable'.
2. In most cases, however, the planning of linked courses appeared to be left to local arrangements. Over a quarter of the replies referred to the committees set up in certain areas to co-ordinate provision between schools and colleges of further education (see question F9), and reported that these encouraged consideration of linked courses. In some authorities, other formal connections between schools and colleges, such as the presence of school representatives on college governing bodies and vice versa, or the appointment of school liaison officers in colleges, were said to facilitate the organisation of linked courses.
3. Linked courses, where they had been introduced, were generally stated to form part of the provision for fifth year pupils, although a few authorities reported that pupils were able to take advantage of them from the fourth year onwards. Most linked courses mentioned by authorities were, as one response put it, 'generally of a pre-vocational nature', but a number appeared to have broader educational objectives; thus while subjects such as building, catering, commercial studies, hairdressing, motor engineering and seamanship were specified, some authorities also referred to courses of a more widely-ranging kind, for example in sciences, technology, computer studies and sociology. About one-eighth of the authorities stated that they made provision for pupils from special schools to participate in linked courses. In general, no quantification was given of the proportion of pupils in an authority's area taking part in links with further education.
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4. Many responses stressed the importance of planning linked courses as an integral part of a pupil's curriculum; thus one authority said that 'at the planning stage the school, the college and the advisory staff try to ensure that:
(a) clear educational objectives are stated;
(b) conventional FE-designed syllabuses for linked courses are avoided;
(c) the school, rather than the college, is responsible for planning public examinations;
(d) no course runs for more than two years without a detailed review taking place'.
5. A number of authorities expected that 'the advent of many City and Guilds Foundation Courses in schools would involve links or association with local colleges'; other examination courses, especially CSE mode 3, were also mentioned, but a variety of linked courses not leading to an examination was described. For example, several authorities referred to 'courses of the "sampler" or "taster" variety ... designed in the main to make pupils aware of career and further education opportunities available to them', and others described 'bridging courses' which, in one case, 'aimed at offering certain fifth form pupils an integrated curriculum of continued general education and of vocational appreciation and orientation, involving attendance for two days per week at further education college'.
6. Although some authorities said that linked courses had developed considerably in recent years, especially since the raising of the school-leaving age, about one-fifth said that the development of such courses had lately been restricted, or even that their number had declined: 'sampler' or 'taster' courses were particularly mentioned in this connection. The principal reason cited was the constraint upon local authority expenditure; although authorities referred to the effects of economic stringency in their replies to other questions, this factor was given much more prominence in connection with linked courses than in response to any other question. An additional reason given was the growing need to use further education facilities to provide courses for the young unemployed. Other difficulties mentioned were the complexities of timetabling when several institutions were involved; the problems of transport between institutions in some areas; the reluctance of some institutions to release pupils to participate in linked courses at a time when falling rolls were already causing difficulties; and parental doubts about the value of these courses as compared with those in more traditional school subjects. A few authorities however stated either that they had resisted pressure to reduce the number of linked
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courses, or that they attached a high priority to their reinstatement at the earliest opportunity.
7. Various methods of financing linked courses were described, in the context of the need to make the most economic use of staffing and accommodation resources available in the school and further education sectors as a whole. Some authorities allocated funds within the further education budget to provide staff for linked courses, while others said that economic constraints had made it necessary to charge at least part of the cost of linked courses to individual schools. For example, one authority referred to a 'scheme .. , in operation in some parts of the county whereby, to facilitate linked courses, schools have given up a proportion of their staffing allowance which has been transferred in cash terms to the college to enable the college to run courses for the schools' pupils'. Others mentioned arrangements to finance the travelling costs involved.
8. The most commonly reported means of facilitating transfer to further education courses after school was the issue of a booklet describing the courses available to students after the age of 16. Some two-fifths of the authorities mentioned a document of this sort, which was generally said to contain information about the courses offered in school sixth forms as well as in colleges. Where joint co-ordinating committees for 16-19 provision (see question F9) had been set up, they were often required by the authority to make this information available to pupils and their parents; in other cases the careers service and/or the advisers helped to produce the relevant booklet. A few authorities with joint co-ordinating committees reported that they operated a common application system for all the sixth forms and colleges of further education in a particular area; this was said to encourage young people to consider carefully the mode of study they wished to pursue, as well as enabling them to choose from a wide variety of courses. A quarter of the responses included specific references to links between schools and colleges in the field of careers education. Examples of such co-operation were the joint mounting of careers conventions; meetings of staff from schools and colleges to discuss careers programmes; and college 'open days'. The provision of information about the courses available at 16 + was mentioned as one of the important functions of careers teachers and careers officers (see question F4). College staff were also frequently said to visit schools to talk to pupils about the nature of the courses available in further education.
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F8. What steps have the authority taken to promote contacts between the pupils and teachers in individual schools and local industry and commerce and the local trades unions, as a means of giving pupils a better understanding of the world of work and of helping teachers to relate school curricula to opportunities open to their pupils?
1. Several authorities commented that contacts between schools and industry arose from many of the activities already described in the responses to other questions ,in section F. For example, the links developed through the organisation of programmes of work experience (question F5) or through periods spent in industry by teachers (question F6) were often built upon by schools. A number of authorities emphasised that 'the most useful contacts are probably those manufactured by the individual schools themselves with their immediate catchments'.
2. Three-fifths of the authorities said that a major part in facilitating informal links of this kind was played by the careers service or by specialist subject advisers. This was achieved largely through day-to-day contacts with employers and teachers; but in a number of cases specific guidance was issued (sometimes in the form of a regular bulletin), generally including a list of firms willing to establish links with schools. One authority described a directory of resources 'containing details of over 50 firms who are prepared to co-operate in many ways with schools, including access to their facilities, loan of equipment and the provision of speakers'. Other authorities mentioned the close involvement of the careers service in arranging for speakers from industry to talk to pupils about the nature of industrial employment and the economic contribution of industry and commerce. Many authorities referred to the value of employers' participation in careers conventions, generally organised by individual schools or groups of neighbouring schools with the assistance of the careers service. As well as offering pupils an opportunity to discuss possible careers with representatives of industry and commerce, conventions enabled teachers and industrialists to meet informally and to exchange views. A few authorities also said that the presence of representatives of trades unions and employers on the governing bodies of schools provided opportunities for contact and increased understanding between education and employment.
3. About a quarter of the responses contained references to other systematic arrangements for liaison operating in certain parts of the authority's area. For example, one authority had produced 'a pilot scheme whereby a number of schools are. developing links with representatives of both sides of
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industry. The aim is to assemble a panel of twelve industrial contacts to link with a school and for them to look at areas of common interest. As these links form, industrial contacts will be encouraged to spend at least one day each term in the school developing contacts with heads of departments and with staff responsible for curriculum development, in addition to observing school activities'. In other authorities, certain industries had been encouraged to 'adopt' a school, and discussions were held between industrialists and the staff of relevant subject departments (see also paragraph 5 below). Many authorities stated that some schools had invited representatives of firms to spend time observing lessons and talking to teachers and pupils, and stressed that such visits increased mutual understanding (see question F10).
4. Under one-fifth of the responses described comprehensive liaison machinery covering the whole of the authority's area. In most cases this took the form of an education-industry liaison committee established by the authority to encourage co-operation and joint activities in a variety of ways. For instance, one authority was setting up such a committee in order to 'promote regular contacts between schools and local sources of employment to ensure greater understanding and sympathy for the needs of individual young people and the demands that society makes of them'. Its objectives were:
'1. to agree a broad strategy and structure for a continuing dialogue between schools and employers;
2. to collate and disseminate examples of successful liaison between schools and industry;
3. to encourage the establishment of small groups of specialist subject teachers and representatives from local employers who are involved in activities relating to the subjects taught by teachers. Each group would be encouraged to develop new teaching material using industrial knowledge and experience to be incorporated into existing curricula;
4. to secure co-operation and involvement of both schools and firms in the fields of careers education and advice.'
Joint committees of this kind generally included representatives of the Education Committee, the administrative and advisory staff of the authority, the careers service and the teachers, and representatives of local firms and trade union organisations.
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5. Many of the links developed by such bodies (and also other links initiated on a smaller scale) led to joint studies of aspects of the curriculum often with a view to incorporating elements related to the work of industry into subject syllabuses, particularly in the fields of science, technology and mathematics. One-fifth of the authorities mentioned such work; one response, for example, said that teachers who were members of a working party set up by one of the Science and Technology Regional Organisations were 'meeting industrialists and trying to find examples of scientific topics being used in local factories in order to quote modern examples in illustrating principles'. Other instances included the production, by a joint working party on mathematics for engineering, of a document outlining suggested curricular topics; and a report by a working party concerned with the literacy needs of school leavers entering employment. A more unusual pilot venture was described by another authority, where 'school to work' courses had been established in selected secondary schools with the help of the careers service: 'these courses involve junior and middle management from industry acting as group leaders and, by simulating facets of industrial life, seek to give pupils a realistic appreciation of the demands of working life'.
6. Slightly under two-fifths of the authorities said that they encouraged schools to participate in various national schemes which had as a primary or as an incidental objective the bringing together of schools and industry; among examples cited were Understanding British Industry, Project Trident and the Schools Council Industry Project. One authority reported that a school's technology project 'is organised by a joint committee of the education authority and local industries, and its aim is to stimulate interest in science and technology in schools by encouraging the use of scientific principles and technical skills in seeking a solution to a defined problem. A feature of the ... scheme ... is that every school which enters a team' receives help from an "industrial mentor". The mentors are local industrialists, often of considerable standing, who because of their background and experience are able to give very real practical assistance to the team working on a project. The assistance takes the form of technical advice and ... the provision of materials which the team is unable to obtain or cannot afford to purchase. Many firms are very generous in the amount of time they allow the mentor to spend in the school and in the quantity of materials provided'.
7. Almost half the responses referred to meetings or conferences which were organised from time to time in order to bring teachers, employers and trades unionists together for discussion of matters of common interest. One
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authority, for example, reported that a conference of 'over a hundred teachers and engineering employers was recently held ... to examine the educational requirements of craft apprentices in engineering'. Such meetings were often said to be organised in co-operation with local Chambers of Commerce, which a number of authorities reported as encouraging their members to provide assistance to schools. In a few cases industries or firms had appointed school liaison officers who helped to co-ordinate and promote contacts. Conversely, one authority reported that it had seconded a senior teacher with a similar brief.
8. Several authorities commented that in practice limits to the cooperation between industry and schools were set by the fact that, however great their willingness to participate in such links, employers and trades unionists often found it very difficult to devote enough time to this work. On the other hand, some replies indicated ways in which this might be overcome through individual links, such as visits by parents and recent school leavers to talk about their work. Such arrangements were also seen as a useful means of introducing pupils to a 'shop floor' viewpoint. In contrast, the more general references to contacts with industry rarely distinguished in detail between the contributions made by representatives of management and of trades unions. The role of the latter was, however, mentioned by a few authorities in, for example, providing speakers 'on trades unions either within the context of the normal history lesson or within the careers/social education programme'.
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F9. In what ways do the authority encourage schools and FE colleges to co-ordinate their respective curricular provision to meet the needs of the 16-19 age group as a whole?
1. About one-fifth of the responses indicated that the authority took no specific steps to encourage co-operation between schools and colleges of further education over their provision for the 16-19 age group. The reason generally given was that the authority regarded the two sectors as catering for different categories of pupil; provision for the age group as a whole was accordingly achieved by offering different types of course in each sector. Thus one authority explained that 'in general, schools are discouraged from providing vocational courses, while colleges are discouraged from providing a wider range of academic 0 and A level courses, unless they have direct links with vocational studies'. Another authority making a similar point said however that it looked for 'school/college co-ordination on minority subjects'.
2. On the other hand, some authorities were of the opinion that 'any thorough-going division of functions ... between sixth forms and FE would eliminate the element of choice for pupils as to the setting in which they prefer to pursue post-sixteen studies ... This element of choice is seen by many as being in itself desirable'. Even an authority declaring that 'in general it will be appropriate for most pupils in the 16 to 18 age group who are continuing their education to pursue their studies in school', accepted that 'some young people, for a variety of reasons, may not be appropriately placed in schools', and went on to say that 'for this reason courses in many subjects available in schools were also available in the colleges', so that 'in practice students have freedom of choice at the age of 16'.
3. Slightly under a quarter of the authorities reported that they had established formal machinery for the co-ordination of courses between schools and colleges. Such machinery generally took the form of joint committees representing the staff of all the institutions catering for 16-19 year aids in a particular district, and was sometimes in existence in only a part of the authority's area. The joint advisory or consultative committees specified in response to this question were usually those described in general terms in paragraph 5 of the summary of replies to question B7. Three examples are quoted below as an illustration of the way in which the powers and constitution of such bodies varied in different authorities, while their remit remained broadly similar.
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4. One county authority had established 'area standing conferences of heads and principals of further education colleges in four major areas, each centred on the FE college. Every year, heads and principals produce proposals for courses to A level, 0 level and CSE for pupils and students in the 16-19 age range. Details of new course proposals are included and the area conference recommends what courses should take place. Conferences are attended by senior officers of the authority'.
5. Another county authority was in the process of establishing 'joint academic advisory boards (jAAB), generally on a district basis. The boards comprise the head teachers/principals of each school and college offering 16-19 full-time courses, a representative 11-16 school head teacher, the senior adviser for the district and the district education officer. The boards are able to co-opt further members according to need and the district education officer acts as chairman. It is intended that the boards should meet regularly to examine the provision and development of 16-19 full-time courses in schools and colleges maintained by the authority in the district and advise the Chief Education Officer. The boards are to make an annual report to the Chief Education Officer and to the governing bodies of schools and colleges participating'.
6. The same.authority went on to say that 'when the system becomes fully operational it is envisaged that before any new courses or subject developments are mounted or offered, the jAAB will be advised and their views sought. Clearly, the authority would wish to discourage new developments in particular institutions which are already well catered for elsewhere, and at the same time to seek progressively to reduce the number of centres offering subjects or courses which enjoy little pupil support, unless there are special circumstances which would justify the continuation of such provision. Such an approach will allow the concentration of minority provision in pre-determined locations set against an area/district plan'.
7. Elsewhere, a London borough had set up an advisory body to monitor the provision of education for the 16-19 age group in the whole of the authority's area. The advisory body, which was chaired by the Director of Education, included in its membership the principals of the authority's further education and sixth form colleges, representatives of high school headteachers and several officers of the authority, including the principal adviser and the principal careers officer. The advisory body had been established for:
'a. the general exchange of views on educational, social and organisational matters;
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b. the exchange of information on proposed new courses and the discontinuation of existing courses;
c. suggesting measures to ensure the wide use of resources including advice on the number of places to be available for the age group at each establishment and to foster the development of linked courses;
d. a continuing [review] of the provision for students with limited examination objectives, and for those who require non-examination courses;
e. the co-ordination of publicity and arrangements for the recruitment of students at all establishments catering for the 16 to 19 age group.'
8. A few responses described attempts which had been made to coordinate the timetables of several institutions so that it would be possible for pupils to follow courses in more than one establishment: this was said to be particularly desirable where minority subjects were not universally available but, as in the replies to question B7, it was apparent that transfer between institutions presented a number of difficulties. Some authorities stressed that their arrangements for co-ordinating overall provision between schools and colleges were still at a developmental stage, and that it was too soon to evaluate their success, while others referred to the reluctance of some institutions to participate actively in such arrangements. Two authorities said that the establishment of tertiary colleges had eased the co-ordination and rationalisation of provision for the 16-19 age group.
9. About one-eighth of the responses indicated that the authority encouraged contacts of a less formal nature between the staffs of schools and colleges. Meetings were held to consider such topics as policy on recruitment of students and the range of courses available, and advisers were generally present to offer guidance on co-ordination (see paragraph 10 below). A few authorities said that schools and further education institutions were represented on each other's governing bodies, and that this facilitated the exchange of information about course provision.
10. One-seventh of the authorities mentioned that the advisory service offered guidance to institutions wishing to co-ordinate their provision. One response reported discussions between the authority's inspector for the 16-19 age group in further and higher education and specialist inspectors with responsibilities in schools and further education for subjects such as art, modern languages and physical education, with a view to co-ordinating provision within the authority's area. Very few authorities referred to the
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appointment of an adviser or officer with special responsibility for the overall co-ordination of education for this age group; others mentioned in-service training, sometimes provided jointly for the staff of schools and colleges, as a means of encouraging consideration of the possibilities for co-operation.
11. About one-third of the responses said that the question of co-ordinating provision for the 16-19 age group as a whole was currently being examined, generally by working parties (already mentioned under question B7) which consisted of officers, advisers, teachers from schools and further education, and sometimes also elected members. In one authority the work of such a body was to be supplemented by the appointment of a research officer who would 'investigate the needs of those post-16 year aids who wish to enter further education but whose academic qualifications do not allow them to do so'; it was hoped that it would be possible 'to identify the different needs of the various groups making up this population with a view to providing the necessary remedial and/or bridge provision'.
12. The overall impression conveyed by the replies was that, where the desirability of steps to co-ordinate provision was acknowledged, the measures adopted were at a relatively early stage of development and would take a while to bear full fruit.
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F10. What steps have the authority taken to inform industry, commerce and the trades unions in their area about the work of their schools in order to promote understanding and to enable them to contribute constructively to the development of school curricula?
1. Most authorities pointed out that many of the activities and arrangements for liaison with industry described in answer to other questions in section F (particularly questions F6 and F8) permitted information to flow both ways, so that employers and trades unionists learned about the aims and methods of schools while teachers' understanding of industry and commerce was increased. Among the channels included by authorities in their responses to this question, but also mentioned in earlier summaries, were education-industry liaison committees, joint working groups looking at particular areas of the curriculum, and the contact generated by teachers' periods of industrial experience.
2. Several authorities said that their strongest link with employers, and their most effective channel for providing information about the work of schools, was the careers service. For example, one authority reported that 'careers officers devote one day a week to visiting industry as part of their normal work, and regard the discussion of developments in education as an important purpose of these visits'. In another authority, it was intended that careers officers and interested teachers should accompany the Chairman of the Education Committee in regular visits to local industries to discuss educational matters with senior managers. Other responses referred to the work of specialist subject advisers in establishing links with relevant .industries; thus one authority's advisers had held discussions with officers of Industrial Training Boards concerning, among other matters, mathematics in the curriculum. Another authority had appointed 'an industrial liaison officer, recruited from a prominent position in local industry, whose task has been to develop constructive links' between schools and industry. In all, rather under half the responses included specific references to the work of the careers or advisory services in this field.
3. About seven-tenths of the replies described various meetings between representatives of the education service, employers and trades unionists. Some of these were specifically designed for the exchange of information: thus one authority supported and encouraged termly meetings between head teachers and employers, while others mentioned joint conferences which had been organised to allow discussion of topics of mutual concern. In many responses the membership of joint committees (most frequently
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careers advisory committees, but also education-industry liaison groups and the authorities' Education sub-committees) was said to include representatives of employers and trades unions. Less formal links through Chambers of Commerce and Trade were also mentioned in many replies.
4. A number of authorities said that the involvement of industry in work on the curriculum in relation to particular subjects had encouraged a greater awareness among employers of the nature of schools' work. This was especially the case in mathematics. For example, a number of authorities reported that employers had participated with teachers in setting realistic goals in mathematics for the less able school leavers. Others had taken steps, such as the organisation of joint conferences or seminars, to inform those working in industry about recent developments in the mathematics curriculum. Curricular links in other fields were also described. One authority had recently introduced school courses in control technology, and stated that 'all the major industrial firms in the county were visited, before the syllabus was introduced, for the purpose of seeing if it was compatible with their own training schemes and whether it would provide a useful foundation for young people hoping to enter industry. Industrialists were enthusiastic about the course and, when it started in schools, welcomed parties of pupils and teachers on visits to study control processes in industry. The comments and exchange of views during these visits have been found valuable by both sides'.
5. Under one-fifth of the responses referred to the production of literature specifically designed to inform industry about the work of schools. This generally took the form of newsletters, commonly produced once or twice a year by the careers service, which contained information about such matters as careers work in schools and new developments in the curriculum and in examinations. One authority commented that publicity for educational developments provided through the local press was also valuable.
6. Many authorities expressed support for the initiatives of individual schools or groups of schools in informing industry about their work, sometimes contrasting such initiatives favourably with attempts to establish more formal links. Thus one authority said that joint conferences, while of value, appeared 'not to have been the most successful way of achieving the desired objectives. Of potentially greater value are the local links ... which afford employers the opportunity to influence particular schools' curricula by pointing to the actual requirements which obtain and the practical application of skills and knowledge learnt.'
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7. A number of examples of links at local level were given. Several authorities said that some schools had encouraged industrialists to spend time in school. observing lessons and talking to teachers. Often these visits formed part of an exchange, with teachers in their turn spending some time with firms, both to learn about industry and to explain their own objectives to employers (see question F6). A quarter of the authorities said that the governing bodies of schools included representatives of industry among their membership; this was seen by one authority as 'a particularly valuable way of promoting understanding and of enabling these representatives actively to contribute to the development of school curricula'. Open days for industry in some schools were reported by one-fifth of the authorities. For example, one response stated that schools had held 'an "Industry day" when top management have been invited to visit the classroom in the curriculum area of their choice. They have also had the opportunity to talk to different groups of children in each of the host schools. They have then met together for luncheon at one of the schools and in the afternoon the headteachers and deputy or careers teachers have joined in seminars with the industrialists, and a closer understanding of the requirements of industry has been achieved and the industrialists have had a clearer idea of the school curriculum'.
8. Although the replies to question F10 referred in general terms to liaison with both employers and trades unions, most of the examples given were of contacts with management. One of the few authorities drawing particular attention to links with trades unions in answer to this question described arrangements by individual schools designed to encourage the participation of union representatives in fifth year careers programmes and civics courses.
9. A few authorities referred to problems which hindered the development of steps to inform industry, commerce and trades unions about the work of schools. Chief among these, in the words of one authority, were the 'difficulties on both sides in finding the time necessary to make any serious contribution in the short term to bridging the gap between two very different worlds'.
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